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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 

IN 

AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY 

16,  No.  4,  pp.  1 19-176,  with  3 maps.  November  6,  1919 


CALENDARS  OF  THE  INDIANS 
NORTH  OF  MEXICO 

BY 

LEONA  COPE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 
BERKELEY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 
DEPARTMENT  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY 

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AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY.— A.  L.  Kroeber,  Editor.  Prices, 
Volume  1,  $4.25;  Volumes  2 to  11,  inclusive,  $3.50  each;  Volume  12  and  following, 


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Cited  as  Univ.  Calif.  Publ.  Am.  Arch.  Ethn.  Price 

Vol.  1.  1.  Life  and  Culture  of  the  Hupa,  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  1-88;  plates 

1-30.  September,  1903  $1.25 

2.  Hupa  Texts,  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  89-368.  March,  1904  3.00 

Index,  pp.  369-378. 

Vol.  2.  1.  The  Exploration  of  the  Potter  Creek  Cave,  by  William  J.  Sinclair.  Pp.  1-27; 

plates  1-14.  April,  1904  40 

2.  The  Languages  of  the  Coast  of  California  South  of  San  Francisco,  by  A.  L. 

Kroeber.  Pp.  29-80,  with  a map.  June,  1904  ., 60 

3.  Types  of  Indian  Culture  in  California,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  81-103.  June, 

1904  : 25 

4.  Basket  Designs  of  the  Indians  of  Northwestern  California,  by  A.  L. 

Kroeber.  Pp.  105-164;  plates  15-21.  January,  1905  75 

5.  The  Yokuts  Language  of  South  Central  California,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp. 

165-377.  January,  1907  ...., — 2.25 

Index,  pp.  379-392. 

Vol.  3.  The  Morphology  of  the  Hupa  Language,  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  344  pp. 

June,  1905  3.50 

Vol.  4.  1.  The  Earliest  Historical  Relations  between  Mexico  and  Japan,  from  original 

documents  preserved  in  Spain  and  Japan,  by  Zelia  Nuttall.  Pp.  1-47. 

April,  1906  .50 

2.  Contribution  to  the  Physical  Anthropology  of  California,  based  on  collec- 

tions in  the  Department  of  Anthropology  of  the  University  of  California, 
and  in  the  U.  S.  National  Museum,  by  Ales  Hrdlicka.  Pp.  49-64,  with 
5 tables;  plates  1-10,  and  map.  June,  1906  75 

3.  The  Shoshonean  Dialects  of  California,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  65-166. 

February,  1907  1.50 

4.  Indian  Myths  from  South  Central  California,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  167- 

250.  May,  1907  75 

5.  The  Washo  Language  of  East  Central  California  and  Nevada,  by  A.  L. 

Kroeber.  Pp.  251-318.  September,  1907  75 

6.  The  Religion  of  the  Indians  of  California,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  319-356. 

September,  1907  i — .50 

Index,  pp.  357-374. 

Vol.  5.  1.  The  Phonology  of  the  Hupa  Language;  Part  L The  Individual  Sounds,  by 

Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  1-20,  plates  1-8.  March,  1907  .35 

2.  Navaho  Myths,  Prayers  and  Songs,  with  Texts  and  Translations,  by  Wash- 

ington Matthews,  edited  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  21-63.  Septem- 
ber, 1907  . 75 

3.  Kato  Texts,  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  65-238,  plate  9.  December,  1909  2.50 

4.  The  Material  Culture  of  the  Klamath  Lake  and  Modoc  Indians  of  North- 

eastern California  and  Southern  Oregon,  by  S.  A.  Barrett.  Pp.  239-292, 
plates  10-25.  June,  1910  75 

5.  The  Chimariko  Indians  and  Language,  by  Roland  B.  Dixon.  Pp.  293-380. 

August,  1910  ....... .... - - — »-  1.00 

Index,  pp.  381-384. 

Vol.  6.  1.  The  Ethno-Geography  of  the  Porno  and  Neighboring  Indians,  by  Samuel 

Alfred  Barrett.  Pp.  1-332,  maps  1-2.  February,  1908  3.25 


2.  The  Geography  and  Dialects  of  the  Miwok  Indians,  by  Samuel  Alfred 

Barrett.  Pp.  333-368,  map  3. 

3.  On  the  Evidence  of  the  Occupation  of  Certain  Regions  by  the  Miwok 

Indians,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  369-380. 

Nos.  2 and  3 in  one  cover.  February,  1908  — .50 

Index,  pp.  381-400. 


- ‘ • ■ - -■  ■- 


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Vol.  1. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 

IN 

AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY 

Vol.  16.  No.  4,  pp.  1 19-176,  with  3 maps.  November  6,  1919 


CALENDARS  OF  THE  INDIANS 
NORTH  OF  MEXICO 

BY 

LEONA  COPE 


CONTENTS  PAGE 

Introduction  120 

Basis  of  time  reckoning  i 121 

„ Astronomical  121 

Seasonal  123 

Units  of  time  reckoning  124 

The  day  and  its  subdivisions  124 

The  “week”  - 126 

The  month  128 

The  term  used  to  express  the  period  128 

The  duration  of  the  period  129 

The  recognition  of  the  moon ’s  phases  129 

The  “week”  130 

Variability  130 

The  seasons  132 

The  year  136 

Methods  of  correction  337 

Types  of  calendars  139 

Descriptive  type  - 140 

Astronomical  type  - „ 141 

Numeral  type  142 

Similarities  between  the  types  143 

Centers  of  development  145 

Diffusion  147 

Calendar  lists  149 

Astronomical  type  149 

Numeral  type  i 153 

Descriptive  type  155 

Eskimo  155 

Northwest  coast  _. 156 

Mackenzie  and  northern  plateau  157 

California  158 

Southwest  : 158 

Plains  and  southern  plateau  159 

Northeastern  woodland  163 

Southeastern  woodland  „ 168 

Bibliography  169 

LIST  OF  MAPS 

Map  L Types  of  native  calendars.  ( Frontispiece .) 

Map  2.  Beginning  of  the  yea'1. 

Map  3.  Some  month  names. 


120 


University  of  California  Publications  in  Am.  Arch,  and  Ethn.  [Vol.  16 


INTRODUCTION 

The  methods  of  time-reckoning  which  are  used  by  the  Indians 
north  of  Mexico  are  remarkable  for  their  simplicity  and  for  the  absence 
of  uniformity,  the  influence  of  local  and  economic  conditions  being 
very  prominent.  In  no  case  are  these  methods  worthy  of  the  name 
calendar  system  in  its  usually  accepted  sense — that  is,  a series  of  years, 
named  or  numbered  from  a definite  fixed  point,  each  subdivided  into 
several  smaller  units,  and  adjusted  more  or  less  accurately  to  the  solar 
year.  In  this  paper,  any  native  attempt,  however  crude,  to  designate 
in  a definite  succession  the  different  periods  of  time  will  be  considered 
a calendar  or  a calendrical  system.  This  would  of  course  include 
almost  any  method  of  noting  time  divisions;  but  even  the  simplest  of 
such  devices  seems  to  contain  the  elements  of  time-reckoning,  ivhich 
under  the  stress  of  necessity,  or  the  elaborating  influences  of  social 
or  religious  organization,  would  develop  into  a more  complex  and 
accurate  system. 

Evidences  of  such  higher  development  are  found  in  portions  of 
North  America — notably  among  the  tribes  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast 
and  of  the  Southwest  area,  where  fairly  complex  systems  with  an 
astronomical  basis  are  in  use,  which  contrast  with  the  very  simple 
non-intercalated  and  unregulated  attempts  of  the  Indians  of  the 
Plains,  and  of  Northeast  and  Southeast  Woodlands. 

Confusion  in  native  reckoning  often  results  from  the  fact  that  the 
names  for  the  lunar  periods  are  taken  from  natural  seasonal  phe- 
nomena, which  of  course  vary  in  time  of  occurrence  from  year  to  year. 
Further  difficulties  arise  because  a characteristic  which  gives  name 
to  a “moon”  may  be  prominent  for  a longer  or  a shorter  time  than 
is  occupied  by  the  lunation. 

Another  interesting  fact  of  note  about  these  calendars  is  that  they 
were  not  used  to  record  the  passage  of  time;  that  is,  the  “calendar” 
was  not  designed  for  recording  the  number  of  years  or  months  or 
days  since  a given  event  took  place,  or  between  two  given  events. 
The  Indians  were  able  to  keep  a fairly  close  count  of  the  passage  of 
time  within  the  current  year,  but  beyond  this  all  chronology  was 
indefinite.  Since  their  occupations,  food,  and  manner  of  life  in  gen- 
eral varied  according  to  the  changes  of  nature,  it  is  not  strange  that 
they  carefully  observed  the  atmospheric  and  celestial  phenomena,  or 
had  acquired  a practical  knowledge  of  the  instincts  and  habits  of 
animals,  birds,  and  fishes. 


1919] 


Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


121 


The  so-called  historical  “calendars”  — annals,  winter-counts, 
notched  sticks,  and  the  like — will  be  given  no  consideration  in  this 
paper,  since  they  are  concerned  with  the  recording  of  events  in  a 
vague  historical  sense  rather  than  with  time-reckoning.  Moreover 
they  were  the  work  of  a few  individuals  and  were  not  understood  by 
the  people  at  large. 


BASIS  OF  TIME  RECKONING 
ASTRONOMICAL 

Although  many  tribes  possessed  some  astronomical  knowledge, 
comparatively  few  used  it  as  a basis  for  reckoning  periods  longer 
than  a moon.  Everywhere  the  changing  positions  of  the  sun  indicated 
the  divisions  of  the  day,  while  the  movement  of  the  prominent  con- 
stellations, the  Pleiades,  Orion’s  belt,  and  Ursa  Major,  and  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  stars,  marked  the  night  divisions.  The  Eskimo  judge 
the  passage  of  the  dark  season  by  the  positions  of  the  constellations; 
the  Point  Barrow  seal-netters,  for  instance,  know  that  when  Arcturus 
has  passed  over  to  the  east,  dawn  is  at  hand  and  seal  netting  nearly 
over.1  Elsewhere  the  constellations  indicated  only  the  subdivisions 
of  the  night  or  the  approach  of  dawn,  which  may  be  of  ceremonial 
importance. 

There  are  some  indications  in  the  literature  that  a few  of  the 
Indian  tribes  recognized  the  equinoxes,  but  in  no  case  did  the  equi- 
noxes directly  enter  into  the  time-reckoning.2 

Doubtless  all  the  Indians  knew  that  the  sun  is  higher  in  the 
heavens  in  the  summer  than  during  the  winter,  and  connected  this 
fact  with  the  seasonal  differences  of  heat  and  cold.  Many  of  the 
North  Pacific  Coast  and  Southwest  Indians  and  the  Eskimo  used 
the  winter  solstice  as  a starting  point  for  their  named  series  of  luna- 
tions ; a few  of  the  Plateau  and  Mackenzie  tribes  seem  to  recognize 
periods  when  the  sun  is  “dead”  and  when  it  is  “returning.”  They 

1 Murdoch,  41. 

2 In  the  month  names  of  the  Nootka.  “Ay-yak-kamilh”  (March  or  April) 
and  “Cheeyahk-kamilh”  (October  or  November)  each  contains  the  element 
“yak”  or  “yahk,  ” which  according  to  Sproat  (p.  123)  means  “long”  when 
used  in  other  combinations  or  alone.  This  might  refer  to  the  relative  lengths 
of  days  and  nights.  But  “yak”  evidently  does  not  mean  long  here.  Both 
Sproat  and  Sapir  (ms.)  translate  “Ay-yak-kamilh”  as  “when  the  herrings 
spawn.”  Sproat  has  no  translation  for  “Cheeyahk-kamilh”;  Sapir  gives 
“cutting  up  moon”  (fish  cut  up  for  smoking).  In  speaking  of  the  Tewa, 
Bandelier  (p.  311)  says  the  altars  used  in  the  kivas  were  green  for  the  summer 
months,  and  yellow  after  the  autumnal  equinox.  But  Harrington,  J.  P.  (p.  62) 
finds  no  evidence  of  an  observation  of  the  equinoxes. 


122 


University  of  California  Publications  in  Am.  Arch,  and  Ethn.  [Vol.  16 


may  have  used  this  knowledge  as  a means  of  regulating  their  year. 
Although  there  is  no  direct  evidence  of  such  use,  still  since  these  tribes 
are  geographically  close  to  the  North  Pacific  area  where  astronomical 
knowledge  enters  definitely  into  the  calendar,  they  may  have  been 
influenced  by  this  more  exact  method.  Among  many  tribes  there  are 
months  named  from  the  lengths  of  the  days* * 3  but  the  nomenclature  in 
no  way  affects  the  calendric  system.  The  Plateau  tribes  have  a period 
of  variable  length  which  kept  their  calendar  regulated,  thus  showing 
they  recognized  the  necessity  of  intercalation.  The  Indians  of  the 
Southwest  reckoned  from  the  extreme  points  of  the  sun’s  path,  and 
their  influence  extended  over  into  southern  California  in  this  as  in  so 
many  other  respects. 

Even  where  the  solstice  was  recognized  as  a primary  point,  its 
determination  was  more  or  less  uncertain,  for  the  Indian  had  no  ac- 
curate mechanical  device  to  aid  him.  In  Greenland  and  the  Ungava 
District  the  shadows  cast  by  the  rocks  indicate  to  the  Eskimo  the  time 
when  the  sun  has  reached  its  lowest  point.4 5  Direct  observation  was 
practiced  by  the  Northwest  and  Southwest  tribes.  The  Kwakiutl 
observe  the  winter  solstice  in  the  morning,  when  they  notice  the  ex- 
treme point  on  the  horizon  reached  by  the  sun.8  The  Nootka  call 
observing  the  solstices  ho'palnken  “to  look  after  the  sun.”  The  ob- 
server places  a stick  in  front  of  himself,  while  another  man  places 
a second  stick  in  line  with  the  first  and  the  point  of  the  rising  of 
the  sun.  The  observation  continues  for  several  days.  The  period 
when  the  sun  remains  quiet  (literally:  “sits  down”)  for  four  or  five 
days  before  beginning  its  return  journey,  is  called  the  solstice.  The 
observation  of  the  solstice  is  of  great  economic  importance.  If  one 
wishes  to  be  successful  in  the  hunting  season,  he  must  perform  cer- 
tain magical  rites  when  the  days  are  getting  longer  and  the  moon  is 
waxing.6 *  The  Hopi  have  “priests  skilled  in  the  lore  of  the  sun,”  who 

s As  among  the  Onondaga  (Beauchamp,  160) : 

Ses-ka-hah:  sun  goes  for  long  days  (June). 

Ses-ka-go-nah:  sun  goes  for  longer  days  (July). 

Tis-ah:  little  long  day  (December). 

Tis-go-nah:  longer  day  (January). 

These  periods  do  not  mark  the  beginning  of  the  year,  or  the  grouping  of  the 
months  into  seasons,  and  seem  to  be  mere  lunations. 

* Cranz,  211;  Turner,  202. 

5 Boas  (letter). 

« Sapir  (ms.).  During  the  four  days  in  which  the  sun  is  still,  it  is  care- 

fully watched.  IT  it  goes  beyond  the  regular  limit,  the  sun  is  thought  to  be 
after  fish  in  the  water.  This  is  a sign  of  an  abundant  supply  of  fish;  but  if 

it  comes  to  the  regular  limit,  begins  to  go  back  and  then  returns,  it  is  a sign 
of  approaching  famine. 


1919] 


Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


123 


determine  the  time  of  the  year  for  their  various  ceremonials  by  observ- 
ing the  exact  place  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun.  Of  the  thir- 
teen points  on  the  horizon,  two  are  called  “sun  houses,”  one  marking 
the  place  of  sunrise  at  the  winter  solstice,  the  other  at  the  time  of 
the  summer  solstice.7  The  Tewa  also  note  the  point  at  which  the 
sun  rises  but  have  not  such  an  elaborate  system  as  the  Hopi.  Their 
method  is  to  sight  along  race-courses  or  hills,  or  to  note  the  place 
of  sunrise  on  the  outline  of  the  eastern  mountains.  From  the  Santa 
Clara  village  the  sun  appears  to  rise  at  different  places  in  a large 
gap  in  the  Santa  Fe  range,  known  as  Wijo ; the  solstices  are  determined 
from  the  apparent  points  of  rising,  hut  the  precise  method  used  is  un- 
known.8 The  Zuni  also  carefully  observed  the  solstices. 


SEASONAL 

The  recurrence  of  the  moon’s  phases — a phenomenon  which  all 
'uncivilized  tribes  observe — divides  the  year  into  “months,”  to  each 
of  which  the  term  “moon”  is  applied.  Seasonal  events,  however, 
usually  give  name  to  the  “moons.” 

Among  some  of  the  Eskimo,  seasonal  occurrences  form  the  only 
basis  of  reckoning  for  the  summer.  The  Ungava  Eskimo  seem  to  have 
disregarded  lunations  altogether.®  Their  periods  are  named  from 
terrestrial  events,  such  as  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice,  ripening  of 
salmon  berries,  and  the  time  of  reindeer  crossing  the  river ; there  are 
also  references  to  the  sun,  its  return  and  position  in  the  sky.  Several 
periods  may  overlap,  but  there  is  a specific  name  for  each.  Since 
more  events  happen  in  summer,  there  are  more  summer  divisions.  The 
Point  Barrow  Eskimo,  according  to  one  account,10  have  only  nine 
moons,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  year  “there  was  no  moon,  only  the 
sun.”  The  Greenland  Eskimo  also  have  difficulty  with  their  summer 
months;  they  depend  on  the  growth  of  the  eider  duck,  the  size  and 
appearance  of  fhe  seals,  and  the  like,  for  the  regulation  of  their 
calendar  when  the  moon  is  invisible.* 11 

A seasonal  event  furnished  the  starting  point  of  the  year  among 
the  Indians  of  the  Mackenzie,  Plains,  Plateau,  Northeast  and  South- 
east Woodlands  areas,  and  sometimes  elsewhere.  The  selection  of  this 

" Fewkes,  1897,  258-259. 

8 Harrington,  J.  P.,  47. 

9 Turner,  202. 

10  Murdoch,  42.  Simpson  secured  names  for  all  twelve  months:  Simpson. 
260-261.  F ’ 

11  Cranz,  211. 


124 


University  of  California  Publications  in  Am.  Arch,  and  Ethn.  [Vol.  16 


initial  event  varies  greatly : agriculturists  seem  to  prefer  the  spring — 
determined  by  the  drying  of  the  earth  or  the  time  for  planting — or 
the  harvest  time  of  their  chief  crop ; hunting  peoples  often  choose  the 
rutting  season  of  some  wild  animal,  but  some  prefer  the  beginning  of 
winter,  and  others  spring — marked  by  the  sprouting  of  the  grass ; sea- 
going tribes  sometimes  take  spring,  but  more  often  the  beginning  of 
winter.  Only  among  several  maritime  and  agricultural  tribes  of  the 
Northwest  and  Southwest  is  the  year  determined  solstitially  rather 
than  seasonally. 


UNITS  OF  TIME  RECKONING 
THE  DAY  AND  ITS  SUBDIVISIONS 
The  day,  as  a unit  of  time  reckoning,  was  of  little  importance. 
Like  most  primitive  peoples  the  Indians  more  often  count  by  nights 
than  by  days ; there  are  no  names  to  distinguish  one  day  from  another, 
except  as  the  direct  result  of  European  influences.12  The  Navaho,  for 
instance,  have  taken  over  the  Spanish  “Domingo,”  and  mention  the 
other  days  as  so  many  days  before  or  after  “Domingo.”13  The  Kiowa 
have  also  learned  to  recognize  Sunday  and  count  the  second,  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  days  after  it;  Saturday  is  known  as  “Little  Sun- 
day.”14 The  Tewa  having  adopted  the  entire  week-series  from  the 
Spanish,  do  no  counting  from  Sunday.  The  Spanish  term  for  week, 
‘ ‘ semana,  ’ ’ is  seldom  used  by  them ; Sunday  frequently  means  week, 
and  Ja-i  “time  between  [Sundays]  ” is  also  used.15  The  Dogribs  have 
obtained  slips  of  paper  on  which  the  missionaries  check  each  day  of 
the  week,  marking  Sunday  with  a cross.1'1  With  the  help  of  this 
device  they  know  when  to  attend  the  mission  services. 

Often  when  the  Indians  agreed  on  a. meeting  at  a particular  time, 
they  arranged  bundles  of  sticks,  from  which  they  destroyed  one  for 

12  Among  the  Central  Eskimo:  “the  days  of  the  month  are  exactly 
designated  by  the  age  of  the  moon”  (Boas,  1888,  p.  648).  The  Seminole  also 
seem  to  have  made  some  attempt  of  this  sort:  “these  [days]  are,  in  part  at 
least,  numbered  by  reference  to  successive  positions  of  the  moon  at  sunset. 
Ta-la-hiis  ke  . . . pointed  to  the  new  moon,  swept  his  hand  from  west  to  east 
to  the  place  the  moon  would  be  when  he  should  go”  (MacCauley,  525).  Rad- 
io ff  (307)  says  the  Kaigani  count  their  time  by  the  moon’s  phases,  and  number 
the  days  by  the  “sleeps.”  He  gives  fourteen  terms,  many  of  which  are  not 
translated;  the  terms  referring  to  the  first  and  third  quarters  are  considered 
doubtful  by  Radio®. 

is  Franciscan  Fathers,  58-59. 

'♦Mooney,  1898,  365. 
is  Harrington,  J.  P.,  67. 
io  Russell,  1898,  165. 


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125 


each  day  or  night  as  it  passed.  When  the  last  stick  was  gone  they 
knew  the  appointed  time  had  come.  This  method  seems  to  have  been 
common  in  the  Southeast  Woodlands  and  the  Southwest.  When  a 
Ute  or  a Navaho  wishes  to  indicate  to  a subsequent  traveler  how 
long  ago  he  passed  a particular  place,  he  places  grass  and  flowers 
on  a pile  of  stones;  the  degree  of  withering  roughly  indicates  the 
passage  of  time.17  The  Nascapee  are  said  to  use  a rude  sun  dial.  They 
place  a short  stick  upright  in  a sandy  spot  and  draw  a line  where  the 
shadow  falls,  thus  showing  the  position  of  the  sun,  and  therefore 
the  time,  at  which  the  first  party  was  there.18  Gaudet  speaks  of  send- 
ing a Lake  of  the  Woods  Indian  in  winter  to  a camp  about  fifty  miles 
away.  He  followed  the  next  day  and  noticed,  in  three  different  places, 
two  sticks  placed  in  the  snow  in  such  a way  that  a line  drawn  between 
them  would  indicate  the  position  of  the  sun,  and  thus  show  the  time 
of  day  at  which  the  Indian  had  reached  the  spot.19 

Very  often  the  same  native  term  designates  day -before-yesterday 
and  day-after-tomorrow.  The  day  seems  to  begin  with  sunrise  or  day- 
light ; night,  with  sunset  or  the  approach  of  darkness.  The  subdivisions 
of  the  day  are  indefinitely  marked,  varying  in  number  from  tribe  to 
tribe.  Several  examples  will  show  the  character  of  these  divisions. 

The  StlatlumH  have  the  following:20 

plan  tcEa'c  p’cil:  just  as  it  comes  day  (day  break). 

plan  aitl  p’cil:  just  now  morning  (dawn). 

plan  tcKtl  pu'lmuq:  just  see  things  (daylight). 

plan  aitl  Esket:  just  now  day  (broad  daylight). 

o'tska  snu'kuma:  outside  sun  (sunrise). 

plan  KaqE'qEtka : early  morning. 

kaqa'tka:  mid-way  between  sunrise  and  noon. 

KEn  ri'pa:  noon  or  midday, 
etc. 

From  the  Navaho  we  have  :21 

hayllkha  (nt’ae)  it  is  dawn. 

nane’’nlkha  or  naneinlkha  (nt’ae)  or  nandza'gai  (nt’ae):  it  is  daylight, 
a'ltso  hos' ’id  (nt’ae):  it  is  full  daylight. 
qa’I’a:  sunrise. 

sha  ’hina,  or  qina  ’sha  ’hidon'al,  or  t ’ado  sha'  hinada : shortly  after  sunrise, 
da'hadi'a:  sun  is  well  up. 

nikhe'ldui,  .or  honidu'i:  it  is  getting  warm  (approximately  8-10  A.M.). 
etc. 

17  Thompson,  118. 

18/dem:  from  Hind,  Explorations  in  Labrador. 

18  Thompson,  118. 

20  Hill-Tout,  1905,  155.  Although  numerous  terms  are  given,  Hill-Tout  does 
not  consider  his  list  exhaustive. 

21  Franciscan  Fathers,  37.  A complete  time  circle  for  the  twenty-four  hours 
is  given. 


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These  examples  may  be  taken  as  typical,  since  only  minor  differ- 
ences appear,  such  as  the  number  of  the  periods  considered.  Thus  the 
Netchillik  seem  to  divide  the  day  into  only  three  parts:  morning, 
evening,  and  night.22 

Several  particularly  interesting  names  of  diurnal  periods  are : 
ts’6  tat:  “blue  night”  (morning),  Tlingit. 

yik  hal't’aji:  “leaning  towards  dawn”  (probably  a reference  to  the 
milky  way),  Navaho. 

tage:  “straight  up”  (reference  to  the  sun’s  position,  meaning  noon), 
Tewa. 

he-ientageie:  “morning  straight  up  time”  (9  or  10  a.m.),  Tewa. 
t’e’itageii:  “evening  straight  up  time”  (2  or  3 P.M.),  Tewa. 
skau'tlEnteut:  “creeping  up  the  mountain”  (a  reference  to  the  line  of 
a shadow  on  the  eastern  mountains),  StlatlumH. 
ketcli'pkwa:  “reached  the  top”  (i.e.,  the  line  of  shadow),  StlatlumH. 


It  is  important  from  the  Indian  standpoint,  because  of  certain 
ceremonials,  to  recognize  the  divisions  of  the  night.  This  is  particu- 
larly noticeable  in  the  Southwest  where  the  ceremonies  are  accom- 
panied with  complicated  rites,  for  the  singing  of  certain  songs  at 
the  proper  time  in  the  early  morning  is  very  necessary.  Traces  of 
this  idea  are  found  in  the  rites  of  most  Indians.  Among  the  Maidii 
the  period  just  before  dawn  is  determined  by  a shaman,  from  the 
position  of  the  stars  of  the  Dipper.23 

A strange  custom  prevails  among  the  Greenland  Eskimo,  where 
the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides  mark  the  subdivisions  of  the  day,24 
with  no  reference  to  the  sun  and  light.  The  daily  change  of  the 
sun’s  position  is  not  so  marked  here  as  in  the  lower  altitudes,  and  for 
many  months  the  moon  and  stars  are  invisible,  while  in  the  winter 
the  sun  never  rises  above  the  horizon. 


THE  “WEEK” 

Among  several  widely  separated  tribes  we  have  evidence  of  the 
division  of  the  “moon”  into  periods  roughly  corresponding  to  our 
weeks.  These  periods  differ  in  length  and  method  of  determination. 

The  Zuni  “week”  is  approximately  one-third  of  a month,  and  is 
called  toplnto  as'temfla,  or  ‘ ‘ one  ten  ’ ’ ;25  what  the  basis  of  such  a 

22  Amundsen,  45-47. 

23  Dixon,  336. 

2«  Turner,  202. 

25  Stevenson,  108. 


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127 


period  is,  is  unknown,  nor  does  any  similar  period  occur  among  other 
tribes  in  North  America,  although  in  South  America  it  was  found 
among  the  Peruvians. 

The  Wyandots26  use  a much  simpler  arrangement.  A lunation 
has  four  parts,  each  with  a name  descriptive  of  the  moon’s  appear- 
ance, and  also  termed  sawa'trat,  “it  begins  again.”  The  names  of 
the  separate  periods  are  as  follows: 

1.  sawate-di’ cri' c§ it  fills  itself  up  full  again  (the  full  moon). 

2.  tusau',ura' : there  again  dark  (i.e.,  it  is  becoming  dark  again). 

3.  sawate^’dicra-'m?' t:  the  moon  comes  off  again  partly. 

4.  ya'  ’dicrase'  ’ eye’ : new  moon  again. 

They  apply  the  term  wa'  traha-'kwa’  (it  is  turned  over,  as  though 
referring  to  a kettle)  to  the  few  days  when  the  moon  is  invisible. 
A peculiarity  of  this  division  of  the  month  is  that  the  subdivisions 
mark  the  changing  appearances  occurring  during  the  decrease  of  the 
moon ; there  seem  to  be  no  subdivisions  during  the  waxing ; nor  is 
there  a name  for  the  entire  time  of  increase,  unless  sawate'dl'cri'ce’ 
covers  this  period.  The  translation  might  imply  such  an  interpreta- 
tion ; but  the  explanation — the  full  moon — would  apply  only  to  the 
few  days  preceding  and  following  the  exact  time  of  the  fullness. 

The  Malecites27  divided  the  moon  into  nine  parts.  But  these  periods 
were  not  definite  time-divisions ; they  seem  to  describe  the  successive 
changes  in  the  moon’s  appearance  and  only  in  a general  way  refer 
to  intervals  of  time.  The  actual  divisions  are  as  follows: 

1.  nangusa:  she  is  born  (the  new  moon). 

2.  nenaghil:  she  grows  (from  the  fifth  to  the  sixth  day  of  the  moon). 

3.  kegan-de  meghil:  soon  full  (from  the  eleventh  to  the  twelfth  day). 

4.  wemeghil:  she  is  full. 

5.  pekinem : after  being  full  (the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth 
days). 

6.  utsine:  she  commences  to  die  (the  twenty -second  and  twenty -third 
days). 

7.  pebassine:  she  is  half  dead. 

8.  metchina  or  sesemina:  she  is  entirely  dead  (when  nearly  disappearing). 

9.  nepa:  she  is  dead  (no  moon). 

Among  the  Plains  Cree,  “all  subdivisions  of  time  [less  than  a 
month]  are  denoted  by  the  different  phases  of  the  moon  as  ‘moon  of 

26  Barbeau  (ms.). 

22  Meehling,  ms.,  quoting  Vetromile:  Abnaki  and  their  History,  81. 


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increase’  (first  quarter),  ‘half  moon’  (second  quarter),  ‘more  than 
half  round’  (third  quarter),  ‘full  or  round,’  ‘decreasing,’  and 
‘dead’.”28 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  Radloff ’s  data  concerning  the  Kaigani.29 
Of  the  fourteen  names  given  to  the  days  or  “sleeps”  of  the  moon, 
Radloff  thinks  that  four  may  refer  directly  to  the  phases  of  the  moon, 
and  that  the  remaining  names  refer  to  the  number  of  the  night : 

1.  ku'ng  et  a'mdsu:  newer  moon. 

5.  ku'nge  i'nnujelg:  fifth  night,  or  first  quarter(f). 

9.  ku'nge  Keku  ne  algang:  full  moon. 

13.  ku'nge  innujelg:  the  third  quarter(t). 

There  is  no  other  direct  information  which  shows  a subdivision 
of  the  month  into  “weeks”;  although  the  waxing  and  the  waning  of 
the  moon  are  quite  generally  recognized,  since  ceremonies  are  usually 
held  during  the  time  of  increase.  The  various  vocabularies  and  dic- 
tionaries give  terms  for  the  different  phases  of  the  moon,  which  may 
have  been  regarded  as  definite  periods  of  time,  but  exact  evidence  on 
this  point  is  lacking. 


THE  MONTH 

The  terms  “month”  and  “moon”  are  used  in  this  paper  in  refer- 
ence to  any  short  period  of  time  which  roughly  corresponds  to  our 
month.  In  nearly  all  cases,  however,  the  basis  of  the  month  is  the 
lunation,  counted  either  from  the  new  or  the  full  moon.  Natural 
phenomena  gave  names  to  the  months;  but  the  division  of  the  year 
into  shorter  periods  is  marked  by  the  recurrence  of  some  phase  of  the 
moon,  rather  than  by  these  phenomena.  That  the  lunar  phases  do 
form  the  real  basis,  is  shown  in  several  ways. 

The  term  used  to  express  the  period. — In  every  case  that  there  is 
information,  the  expression  for  “month”  is  the  same  as  for  the 
moon,  and  it  often  corresponds  to  that  for  sun.  The  Nootka30  have 
a suffix,  -q-imd,  to  denote  a month.  It  means  round  object,  tl\at  is, 
“moon”;  it  is  also  used  for  dollar  in  the  numeral  forms.  They  have 
in  addition  an  independent  word,  hopal,  which  is  the  same  term  as  for 
moon  and  sun.  The  month  is  started  from  the  new  moon — the  expres- 
sion being,  htnal  atei  tl,  “it  is  joined  or  patched  on.”  The  Timucua 


2*  Hayden,  1863,  245. 
2»  Radloff,  307. 
so  Sapir,  ms. 


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129 


term  for  moon,  acuhiba,  literally  means  “the  one  who  tells” — or  the 
indicator  (of  time).31  There  is  no  case  in  which  the  month  term  is 
etymologically  unrelated  to  that  for  moon. 

The  duration  of  the  period. — The  length  of  the  month  evidently 
corresponds  as  closely  to  the  lunation  as  offhand  observation  will  per- 
mit, even  though  its  exact  length  in  days  is  often  unknown  to  the 
natives.  An  old  Quileute,  being  asked  definitely  about  this  point,  said 
there  were  thirty-two  days  to  a moon.  When  he  was  shown  the  mistake 
involved  in  such  a reckoning,  he  maintained  that  his  count  was  only 
approximate.32  Some  of  the  Blackfoot  are  said  to  count  twenty-six 
days,  some  thirty  days  to  a moon  ;33  but  since  the  period  in  which  the 
moon  is  invisible  is  considered  the  beginning  of  the  next  month,  the 
duration  of  the  month  must  vary  considerably.  The  Plains  Cree 
seem  to  disregard  the  days  when  the  moon  is  invisible,  for  their 
month  begins  when  the  new  moon  is  first  noticed,  and  ends  when  the 
moon  is  no  longer  visible.34  The  “Algonquins”  are  said  to  have  had 
twenty-eight  days  to  a month,  and  thirteen  months  to  a year.35  This 
is  very  improbable.  Such  a reckoning  would  involve  more  careful 
and  accurate  astronomical  observations  than  the  Indians  were  able  to 
undertake.  Moreover,  as  far  as  the  calendar  is  concerned,  one  cannot 
make  such  general  remarks  as,  “in  all  Algonquin  tribes.”  There  is 
no  phase  of  the  calendric  systems  which  holds  for  any  group  of 
Indians.  Variations  occur  even  among  the  most  closely  related  groups. 
Most  investigators  state  that  the  Indians  were  unable  to  tell  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  a month.  This  is  indeed  more  probable,  for  there  was 
no  occasion  for  such  exactness,  and  without  designations  for  the  days, 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  they  could  keep  account  of  the  number  of 
days  necessary  to  complete  a “moon.”  No  sequence  of  prominent 
natural  events  would  give  even  a rough  correspondence  to  the  luna- 
tions; the  seasons  of  the  various  fruits,  berries,  and  wild  game  may 
be  of  longer  or  shorter  duration  than  a “moon”;  and  may  vary  in 
length  and  time  of  occurrence  from  year  to  year. 

The  recognition  of  the  moon’s  phases. — All  uncivilized  tribes  dis 
tinguish  the  different  phases  of  the  moon.  Among  the  North  American 
Indians,  the  new  moon  usually  marks  the  first  of  the  month,  although 

31  Gatsehet,  1880,  473. 

32  L.  J.  Frachtenberg  (letter). 

33  Wissler,  45. 

3i  Hayden,  1863,  245. 

35  Schoolcraft,  1846,  85. 


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the  full  moon  is  sometimes  used.  The  waxing  and  the  waning  of  the 
moon  were  also  noted.  The  Nootka  are  very  particular  in  noticing 
the  solstices  and  the  new  moon,  for  it  is  important  that  the  ’o-sumtc’ 
ceremonies  take  place  in  the  waxing  of  the  moon  and  the  lengthening 
of  the  days,  otherwise  the  performance  of  these  ceremonies  causes 
bad  luck.30  This  idea  may  explain  the  importance  of  these  same 
periods  among  certain  other  tribes,  since  the  more  complex  and  highly 
developed  the  ceremonialism  is,  the  more  careful  the  determination  of 
the  solstices,  the  lunar  phases,  and  the  time-reckoning.  The  tribes 
among  whom  the  full  moon  marks  the  beginning  of  the  ‘ ‘ moon  ’ ’ are : 
the  Greenland  Eskimo,37  certain  tribes  of  Northwestern  Oregon  and 
Western  Washington,33  the  Quileutes,39  Juaneno,40  Kiowa,41  Co- 
manche,42 and  Kansa.43  The  Lenni  Lenape  used  either  the  new  or  the 
full  moon.44 

The  “week.” — In  the  few  instances,  mentioned  above,  in  which 
the  month  is  subdivided  into  “weeks,”  the  phases  of  the  moon  deter- 
mine the  division. 

Variability. — The  sequence  of  the  months  is  often  given  differently 
by  individuals  of  the  same  tribe.  Some  of  the  variations  may  be 
due  to  a partial  loss  of  meaning  in  the  month  names — that  is,  a ten- 
dency toward  conventionalization  of  the  name ; and  to  the  fact  that 
the  counts  were  all  oral.  An  oral  series  readily  admits  of  variations 
between  tribes,  divisions  of  tribes,  or  even  families.  Dr.  Rad  in  men- 
tions that  two  month  names  used  by  the  Nebraska  Winnebago  differ 
from  those  found  among  the  Wisconsin  Winnebago,  thus  indicating 
a change  in  month  designations  ensuing  from  a change  of  locality 
since  about  I860.45 

36  Sapir  (ms.).  The  “’ostmitc”’  ceremonies  consist  of  “prayer,  bathing, 
and  rubbing  down  with  hemlock  branches,  rubbing  one’s  self  with  medicines, 
and  undergoing  various  imitative  actions  which  belong  to  the  domain  of 
sympathetic  magic.”  They  are  secret  rites,  usually  performed  at  night,  in 
certain  selected  spots.  Their  purpose  is  to  acquire  magical  power  for  a par- 
ticular pursuit.  There  are  many  kinds  of  these  ceremonies,  each  of  which  has 
its  appropriate  month  or  portion  of  a month. 

37  Cranz,  211. 

33  Gibbs,  1887,  213. 

a»  L.  J.  Frachtenberg  (letter). 

Boscana,  302. 

Mooney,  1898,  368. 

42  Schoolcraft,  1860,  236  (Burnet). 

« Hunter,  304. 

44  Zeisberger,  1830,  108. 

P.  Badin  (letter). 


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131 


To  quote  again  from  the  Nootka  accounts — for  we  have  exception- 
ally good  data  for  this  tribe — Dr.  Sapir  says  :40  ‘ ‘ Not  all  families  count 
alike.  One  family  is  sometimes  one  month  ahead,  or  one  month  behind 
another.  Sometimes  they  quarrel  about  what  month  it  is,  the  names 
being  well  known,  but  the  exact  order  in  which  the  months  occur  and 
the  exact  time  of  the  beginning  of  each  month  being  somewhat  open 
to  dispute.  Each  family  should  keep  track  of  the  months  for  itself 
so  as  to  know  when  to  ’o-sunitc’.  Sometimes  one  hunter  tries  to  fool 
another  in  order  to  produce  bad  luck  for  him.  He  might  say : ‘ This 
month  is  so  and  so.’  The  other  thinks  it  is  time  to  ’osumtc’  say  for 
hair  seal.  He  is  mistaken,  and  inasmuch  as  it  is  bad  luck  to  ’o-sumtc’ 
for  hair  seal  at  that  particular  time,  he  fails  to  get  many  in  the 
hunting  season.” 

A comparison  of  the  different  accounts  given  for  the  same  tribe 
occasionally  shows  remarkable  differences  in  the  sequence  of  the  same 
month  names,  and  also  substitutions.  Both  the  Masset  and  Skidegate 
Haida  have  a “between  month”;  among  the  former  this  occurs  in 
October,  between  the  summer  and  winter  series  where  it  properly 
belongs,  as  its  name  indicates;  the  Skidegate  give  it  as  April,  in  the 
summer  series.  “Wit  gias”  (russetback  thrush  month)  appears  in 
both  divisions.  In  the  Masset  list  it  comes  in  March,  while  in  the 
Skidegate  it  falls  in  May.  One  name  for  the  first  month  of  the  Masset 
series,  “q  !a'  g.\n  gias”  (April)  is  almost  identical  with  the  second 
winter  month  of  the  Skidegate,  “ Q !a' G.vna  gias,  ” (October).47  An- 
other list  obtained  at  Masset  differs  from  this  in  having  only  twelve 
moons — “Qoiiqo'ns”  (June)  being  omitted;  and  in  calling  the  month 
corresponding  to  our  May,  an-kong-as  (berry  month)  instead  of 
wa'al-gwalga-i  (meaning  that  the  weather  is  still  somewhat  cold) . The 
place  of  the  “between  month”  in  this  list  also  appears  before 
‘ ‘ sean  gias  ’ ’ instead  of  between  the  summer  and  winter  series.48 

Similar  results  appear  in  comparing  the  two  accounts  of  the  Tlin- 
git.  A Sitka  informant  gave  a list  of  thirteen  months,  beginning  the 
count  in  August;  a Wrangell  informant  gave  twelve  months,  begin- 
ning the  count  in  January.  “Four  names  correspond  exactly  in 
both  lists,  five  other  names  are  the  same  but  are  not  applied  to  the 

40  Sapir  (ms.). 

47  “No  explanation  of  its  meaning  could  be  obtained  from  the  Masset  divi- 
sion; but  the  Skidegate  say  the  first  word  refers  to  a part  of  the  halibut  near 
the  gills,  and  the  second  word  to  the  backbone.’’ — Swanton,  1903,  331-335. 

48  Idem.  Swanton  compares  with  the  results  of  his  own  investigations  a 
list  obtained  by  Kev.  J.  H.  Kean,  a missionary  at  Masset. 


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corresponding  periods,  and  the  names  are  sometimes  interpreted  differ- 
ently.”49 Dr.  Swanton  considers  the  Sitka  order  ‘‘probably  more 
ancient  than  the  other”  in  regard  to  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

A study  of  the  calendars  of  the  four  Kwakiutl  tribes — Nimkish, 
Mamalelekala,  Nakwartok,  and  Koskimo — brings  out  the  same  uncer- 
tainty in  the  beginning  and  order  of  the  month  names.50 

Simpson  and  Murdoch  give  accounts  of  the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo 
which  agree  fairly  well ; although  Murdoch  was  told  there  were  only 
nine  moons,  and  after  the  ninth  ‘‘there  was  no  moon,  only  the  sun,” 
while  Simpson  gives  names  for  twelve.  Simpson  also  places  “depart- 
ing to  hunt  reindeer”  in  January,  before  “great  cold  and  new  sun” 
(February).  Murdoch  gives  the  same  names  with  the  order  reversed. 
Judging  from  the  time  of  their  actual  occupations,  Murdoch51  gives 
the  more  reasonable  sequence.  There  are  other  differences  in  these 
two  lists,  also. 

Numerous  other  examples  might  be  given.  Reference  might  be 
made  to  the  four  Tewa  villages  (San  Juan,  San  Ildefonso,  Santa  Clara 
and  Nambe)  or  to  the  several  accounts  of  the  Dakota,  Winnebago, 
Plains  Cree,  Eastern  Cree,  and  Northern  Saulteaux,  since  they  show 
that  this  tendency  toward  variation  and  confusion  is  confined  to  no 
particular  locality.  The  variations  found  in  the  simpler  types  of 
calendars  consist  chiefly  of  differences  in  the  selection  of  phenomena 
for  the  month  name.  In  the  complex  types,  differences  in  the  order 
of  the  month  series  appear,  but  substitution  of  other  phenomena  also 
occurs.  The  substitution  is  probably  due  to  the  general  simplicity  of 
all  the  systems;  simple  calendars  have  made  no  advancement  beyond 
the  need  of  designating  separate  periods  of  time,  and  the  names  have 
formed  no  definite  succession,  so  that  any  prominent  natural  phenom- 
enon may  supply  the  necessary  name.  The  differences  in  the  order 
of  the  month  series  seem  to  result  from  a conventionalizing  of  the 
names,  whereby  their  significance  is  lost. 

THE  SEASONS 

In  general  the  seasons  are  independent  units  which  sometimes 
enter  indirectly  into  the  time  reckoning,  where  there  is  a grouping  of 
the  months  into  a summer  and  a winter  series.  The  Ute  calendar 
is  somewhat  analogous  to  this  grouping,  in  that  it  has  the  months  as 


<9  Swanton,  1908. 
so  Boas,  1909,  413. 

5i  Simpson,  260;  Murdoch,  42. 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


definite  subdivisions  of  the  seasons,  the  moons  being  known  as  “moon 
of  a particular  season,”  “middle  or  big  moon  of  that  season,”  and 
“last  moon  of  that  season.”52 

The  Indian’s  season  is  determined  by  the  more  important  changes 
in  the  natural  phenomena,  the  gradual  approach  of  which  makes  it 
possible  for  him  to  have  as  many  seasons — that  is  to  recognize  as  many 
events — as  he  wishes. 

The  number  of  seasons  recognized  varies  from  two  to  eight ; where 
more  than  four  are  recognized'  the  main  seasons  are  subdivided 
naturally.  The  periods  in  use  among  the  Hare  furnish  an  excellent 
example  :53 

Description 
of  the  period 
Winter* 
with  sun 
without  sun 
Spring 

little  heat 
with  snow 
melting  of  snow 
germination 
Summer 

middle  of 
summer 
Autumn 

first:  falling 
of  leaves,  or 
second:  falling 
of  snow 


Native  term 


xay.  = xare.  = jya-kke' 
kokkpawe'.  = dae'kkpawe' 


no  translation 
no  translation 


kollu-kkpage'.  = 
kollu-kke'zje'n 
ualle'le*.  = 1 ’ukkie' 
toon-  = toon-  goden-wide' 


on  the  ice 


thaw 

no  translation 


inpe'.  = chine' 


ti-go’tlan.  = 

na-od'ede'kkpa 
t’u-yan-t’a-godit’e'n.  = 

ti-gotven£' 


fine  earth 
earth  becomes  cold 
in  little  lakes 
the  water  freezes 
earth  is  dead 


The  names  for  the  seasons  among  all  the  tribes  are  descriptive, 
depending  in  some  measure  on  the  type  of  culture  the  particular  tribe 
represents.  A few  examples  taken  at  random  will  make  this  clear. 
Among  the  Kiowa  we  have  :54 

1.  sai'gya,  or  sata:  winter. 

2.  so'n  pa'te:  grass  springing;  also:  a'se'gya — an  archaic  term  the  meaning 
of  which  is  lost. 

3.  pai'gya,  or  pai'ta:  summer  (connected  with  the  name  for  the  sun). 

4.  pao'ngya':  autumn  (the  name  seems  to  refer  to  the  thickening  of  the 

fur  on  the  buffalo);  also:  ai'den-gyagu'adal-o'mgyai:  when  the 

leaves  are  red. 

•'■s.Sapir  (ms.). 

53Petitot,  1876a.  The  seasons  are  found  in  the  “ Dictionnaire  ” in  alpha- 
betical order,  under  the  French  names  for  the  seasons. 

54  Mooney,  1898,  366. 


134 


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The  Nootka  seasons  are  :55 

1.  t’laq*ci  tl:  it  starts  growing  (early  spring). 

2.  t’lo.pVtch*:  hot  season  (early  spring  and  first  part  of  summer). 

3.  aitchacitl:  it  comes  near  to  rutting  season  (approximately  August 
and  September). 

4.  ai’yi-tc  h':  rutting  season  (early  fall). 

5.  ai  tcha’ato-  ’is:  rotten  fish  float  back  down  the  river  (late  fall). 

6.  t’s  o’itc  h*:  wash  season  (when  everything  is  washed  by  rain  and 
snow). 

The  Occaneechi  :56 

1.  budding  or  blossoming. 

2.  ripening. 

3.  midsummer. 

4.  harvest  or  fall. 

5.  winter. 

As  with  us  the  seasons  are  rather  vague  and  indefinitely  marked. 
The  length  also  varies  from  year  to  year  with  the  occurrence  and  dura- 
tion of  the  natural  phenomena  which  mark  the  seasons.  How  close 
this  dependence  on  the  phenomena  is,  is  well  illustrated  by  LeClercq’s 
account  of  the  Micmac:57  “They  say  that  the  spring  has  come  when 
the  leaves  begin  to  sprout,  when  the  wild  geese  appear.  . . . They 
recognize  that  the  summer  has  come  when  the  salmon  run  up  the 
rivers,  and  the  wild  geese  shed  their  plumage.  They  recognize  that 
it  is  the  season  of  autumn  when  the  water-fowl  return  from  the  north 
to  the  south.  As  for  the  winter,  they  mark  its  approach  by  the  time 
when  the  cold  becomes  intense,  when  the  snows  are  abundant  on  the 
ground,  and  when  the  bears  retire  into  the  hollows  of  the  trees.  ’ ’ 

The  calendars  of  the  Eastern  Cree  and  Northern  Saulteaux  are 
evidently  closely  related.  Interesting  variations  have  developed  in 
the  names  and  number  of  the  seasons  recognized.  The  Eastern  Cree 
divide  the  year  into  eight  seasons ; the  Northern  Saulteaux  recognize 
but  six,  four  of  which  bear  the  same  names  as  the  corresponding 
periods  of  the  Cree ; the  others  have  names  similar  to  two  in  the  Cree 
list.58  The  actual  lists  follow : 

65  Sapir  (ms.).  This  list  is  from  the  T’sica-'ath*  tribe.  Another  informant, 
from  the  Ho-pa  teas'ath"  tribe,  gave  only  four  seasons  corresponding  to  our 
four,  and  omitting  the  third  and  fifth  of  the  above  list.  These  are  probably 
of  only  secondary  importance,  although  the  Tsica-'ath*  informant  insisted  on 
the  six  seasons. 

ss  Mooney,  1894,  34.  The  native  terms  are  not  given. 

57  Le  Clercq,  137.  All  information  concerning  the  seasons  is  similar  to  this. 

ss  For  the  Eastern  Cree  see  Skinner,  1911,  48;  for  the  Northern  Saulteaux, 
ibid.,  147. 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


135 


Eastern  Cree.  A 

1.  sigun: 

1 ‘ spring  before  open  water,  ’ ’ 

2.  miluskamin: 

“spring  after  open  water  and 
before  summer.  ’ ’ 

3.  nipin: 

‘ * early  summer.  ’ ’ 

4.  me'gwanipmi: 

“middle  of  summer." 

5.  tukwagun: 

* 1 early  autumn.  ’ ’ 

6.  migiskau: 

‘ ‘ late  autumn.  ’ ’ 

7.  pichipipun: 

“early  winter,  just  before  frost." 

8.  me'gwapipun: 

“late  winter." 


orthern  Saulteaux. 

1.  sigun 

‘ * spring.  ’ ’ 

2.  min'okomin: 

‘ ‘ between  spring  and  summer.  ’ ’ 

3.  nipin: 

‘ ‘ summer.  ’ ’ 


4.  tukwa'gin: 

' ‘ autumn.  ’ ’ 


5.  pit'cipipoun : 
“Indian  Summer." 

6.  pipoun: 

‘ ‘ winter.  ’ ’ 


The  Southwestern  tribes  recognize  but  two  seasons/'9  Outside  this 
area,  comparatively  fewr  tribes  divide  the  months  into  two  groups. 
Close  to  regions  of  the  two-season  count  we  may  find  four,  five,  or  six 
seasons  recognized  by  tribes  of  very  similar  culture.  Where  the  two- 
season  count  appears,  it  may  mark  the  natural  periods  of  cold  and 
heat — as  among  the  Haida,  Maidu,  Navaho,  Bannock,  Blackfoot, 
Arikara,  Kiowa,  and  Choctaw ; or  the  division  may  be  determined  by 
the  solstices,  as  seen  among  the  Bella  Coola,  Makaw,  Juaneno,  Hopi, 
Zuni,  and  Hano. 

The  Copper  Eskimo00  do  not  recognize  “months”  but  merely  divide 
the  year  into  five  seasons  which  vary  in  length  from  year  to  year : 

1.  oqiuq:  (winter),  middle  of  November  till  the  end  of  February,  when 
the  sun  is  either  very  low  in  the  sky  at  noon,  or  does  not  rise  at  all. 

2.  optn7aqsaq:  (early  spring),  from  the  beginning  of  March  until  the 

latter  part  of  April,  when  the  snow  first  begins  to  melt. 

3.  op«n7aq:  (spring  proper),  from  the  first  melting  of  snow  until  the 

land  is  bare  of  snow. 

4.  auyaq:  (summer),  when  the  days  are  warm,  the  snow  is  off  the  ground, 
and  the  lakes  are  free  of  ice. 

5.  oqiuqsaq:  (autumn),  when  the  weather  becomes  cold  again,  the  lakes 
freeze  over,  and  the  land  begins  to  show  signs  of  winter. 

5B  The  Jemez  distinguish  the  four  seasons;  the  Tewa  also  speak  of  a spring 
and  an  autumn  but  they  are  not  considered  real  seasons  (Harrington,  J.  P.,  61). 
They  are  doubtless  obtained  through  contact  with  civilized  peoples.  Other 
instances  of  borrowing  are  found  among  the  Blackfoot  and  the  Crow  (Wissler, 
44;  Lowie,  242).  Among  the  Blackfoot  the  months  are  definitely  divided  into 
a summer  and  a winter  series. 

oo  Jenness,  ms. 


University  of  California  Publications  in  Am.  Arch,  and  Ethn.  [Vol.  16 


THE  YEAR 

The  year  may  be  regarded  as  the  interval  between  recurrent  events, 
since  no  attempt  is  made  to  compute  its  length  in  days,  and  since 
the  number  of  moons  is  somewhat  uncertain  in  the  native  mind. 
Either  solar  or  terrestrial  events  may  determine  the  inception  of  the 
year.  The  winter  solstice  forms  the  astronomical  basis,  but  the  ter- 
restrial events  vary  in  kind  and  time  of  occurrence,  although  spring- 
time and  the  beginning  of  winter  seem  to  be  preferred.  Climatic  con- 
ditions, the  rutting  season  of  various  animals,  and  the  harvest  time, 
furnish  good  starting  points.  This  variation  indicates  that  little 
stress  is  laid  upon  which  of  the  months  begins  the  year-count,  each 
tribe  or  even  family  deciding  which  event  shall  mark  the  first  month 
of  their  year.  For  the  distribution  of  the  various  periods  which  are 
regarded  as  the  first  of  the  year,  see  map  2. 

The  usual  designation  for  “year”  is  “winter.”  The  Seminole 
use  the  term  “summer”;'”  the  Yokuts,  “world.”  The  Nootka  have 
distinct  suffixes  for  “year”  and  “season”;  that  for  year  “-q'  ’itch-a,” 
is,  however,  a derivative  of  that  for  season,  “ - ’itch-a  ” ;62  the  Wyandot 
use  the  term  “saya'’ade’egya’,”  (again  it  overtakes).63 

The  Indian  is  usually  unable  to  keep  account  of  an  interval  of  more 
than  two  or  three  years ; after  that  the  reckoning  becomes  vague,  and 
if  he  is  obliged  to  reckon  by  years  he  often  becomes  sadly  confused. 
The  Eskimo  of  Melville  Peninsula  often  repeat  the  term  “alranee” 
in  order  to  express  several  years,  or  use  the  word  “oonooktoot”  to 
mean  a great  many.64  The  Point  Barrow  Eskimo  say  “ai-pa'-ni,” 
which  may  mean  two  years  ago,  but  as  readily  denotes  twenty. 
“Al-ra'-ne”  is  used  for  very  indefinite  times.  The  future  is  referred 
to  by  the  term  “nana'ko  nana'kun”  (by  and  by)  ; or,  some  reference 
may  be  made  to  an  expected  event,  such  as  the  going  of  the  ice.65 
Although  it  is  often  loosely  stated  that  the  Indian  could  tell  his  age 
by  the  expression  “so  many  winters  had  passed  over  his  head,”  or 
that  he  was  so  many  winters  old,  this  expression  is  no  doubt  developed 
through  contact  with  civilized  peoples.  The  expression  more  in  keep- 
ing with  the  Indian  calendric  systems  is  that  found  among  so  many 
tribes : “I  was  so  large  when  a certain  event  happened. ’ ’ This  event 
may  be  a year  of  famine,  a year  of  some  epidemic,  the  growth  of  a 

1,1  MacCauley,  524. 

62  Sapir  (ms.). 

Barbeau  (ms.). 

««  Parry,  556. 

65  Simpson,  261;  Murdoch,  43. 


* 


I 


Map  2.  Beginning  op  the  Year. 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


137 


particular  tree  or  grove,  or  some  remarkable  exploit.  The  Hupa  judge 
one’s  age  by  the  condition  of  the  teeth.  Such  vague  statements  or 
references  as  these  are  probably  as  near  as  the  Indian,  of  himself, 
ever  came  to  considering  his  age. 


METHODS  OF  CORRECTION 

The  Indian  seems  vaguely  aware  of  the  discrepancy  between  his 
lunar  reckoning  and  the  solar  year.  Many  tribes  apparently  have  no 
method  of  correcting  their  year  count.  In  the  calendars  which  have 
only  twelve  months,  the  Indians  may  unconsciously  lengthen  a month 
when  it  does  not  tally  with  the  event  for  which  it  is  named,  or  insert 
another  period.  That  the  discrepancy  was  felt  is  shown  by  the  fre- 
quent references  in  the  literature  to  discussions  and  quarrels  as  to 
which  month  it  is,  or  ought  to  be  at  a given  time.  The  arguments 
apparently  continue  in  such  cases  until,  through  a comparison  with 
the  natural  phenomena,  matters  are  set  right.  Among  the  Yurok,  the 
time  for  gathering  acorns,  “Nohsho,”  settles  all  disputes  arising  from 
the  fact  that  some  individuals  try  to  count  thirteen  moons,  while  others 
count  only  twelve.08  Similar  difficulties  and  methods  of  correction 
would  probably  be  found  in  practically  all  the  calendars  if  full 
information  were  available. 

There  is  no  definite  distribution  of  the  tribes  using  twelve  and 
thirteen  moon  calendars  respectively.  The  Pawnee  are  said  to  have 
twelve  and  thirteen  months  alternately — the  intercalary  moon  being 
inserted  at  the  end  of  summer.07  The  Central  Eskimo  have  quite 
an  exact  system,  though  simple  and  depending  on  easily  recognized 
phenomena.  When  the  new  moon  and  the  winter  solstice  coincide,  the 
month  “siringilang”  (without  sun)  is  omitted.  This  “month”  is  a 
period  of  indefinite  length  ;88  by  the  omission  of  it  their  count  is  kept 
fairly  exact,  since  they  have  thirteen  months  to  the  year. 

The  Ahtena69  and  Luiseno,70  who  have  fifteen  and  sixteen  divisions 
of  the  year  respectively,  and  the  Eskimo  of  the  Ungava  District,71 
have  disregarded  the  lunations,  and  merely  observe  so  many  events. 

0,1  Kroeber  (ms.).  That  “Nohsho”  is  not  the  beginning  of  the  year,  even 
though  it  regulates  the  month  series,  is  shown  by  the  numeral  nomenclature, 
which  makes  this  the  eleventh  month. 

Dunbar,  744. 

88  Boas,  1888,  644. 

«»  Baer,  100. 

70  Du  Bois,  162. 

71  Turner,  211. 


138 


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When  the  year  begins  with  some  particular  natural  event,  say  the 
harvest  of  some  fruit,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  moons  fit  in.  unless 
only  the  approximate  time  of  the  harvest  is  taken — varying  a little 
from  year  to  year  until  the  discrepancy  becomes  noticeable.  In  that 
case  perhaps  another  month  is  added,  or  the  moon  count  may  be  sus- 
pended for  a time.  The  Malecites72  usually  divide  their  year  into 
twelve  lunar  months ; but  when  the  moons  became  sufficiently  far  be- 
hind the  seasons,  they  inserted  a moon  between  July  and  August  which 
they  called  ‘ ‘ abonamwikizoos,  ’ ’ or  “ let  this  moon  go  by.  ’ ’ 

The  majority  of  the  Northwest  and  Northern  Plateau  tribes  have  a 
definite  intercalary  period,  but  its  exact  relation  to  the  lunar  periods 
is  not  clear.  The  Bella  Coola  have  a non-lunar  period,  of  approxi- 
mately six  weeks  at  each  solstice.  Five  months  are  counted  between 
these  periods;73  but  in  what  manner  the  regular  count  is  resumed, 
the  evidence  fails  to  show.  The  Kwakiutl  call  the  winter  solstice 
“ts!a'tap!a”  (split  both  ways).74  It  serves  as  a period  of  adjustment 
and  since  their  solstices  are  carefully  observed,  no  really  serious  error 
can  occur.  The  Haida  have  a “between  month”75  which  is  probably 
omitted  when  necessary.  Often  among  the  Northern  Plateau  peoples, 
the  latter  part  of  the  year  is  a period  of  variable  length  called  the 
“remainder  of  the  year.”  This  “balance”  usually  covers  a period 
roughly  corresponding  to  our  July-October — the  year  count  begin- 
ning with  the  first  of  winter,  or  the  rutting  season  of  some  wild 
animal.70  In  addition  to  the  Plateau  tribes,  the  StsEe'lis77  con- 
sider the  autumn  as  a period  of  variable  length.  The  name  applied 
to  this  interval  by  the  StsEe'lis,  “ umtsfimuksEl,  ” signifies  the  coming 
together  or  meeting  of  the  two  points  or  ends  of  the  year ; the  latter 
part  is  often  called  “tEm  ya'auk,”  or  the  time  of  the  dying  of  the 
salmon.  The  Northeastern  Maidu  may  also  recognize  a “remainder 
of  the  year,  ’ ’ but  it  is  doubtful.  Dixon78  says : ‘ ‘ Only  nine  moons  or 
periods  were  known,  at  least  no  othei*s  seem  to  be  known  at  present.” 
He  fails  to  correlate  these  periods  with  our  months.  The  month 
names  of  these  Maidu  reflect  the  gradually  changing  natural  events, 

72  Mechling,  ms.,  from  Vetromile:  Abnaki  and  their  History  (81-83).  Vet- 
romile  gives  data  from  a tribe  which  Mechling  believes  to  be  Malecites. 

72  Boas,  1898,  41. 

7*  Boas,  1909,  413. 

78  Swanton,  1903.  Its  place  in  the  calendar  is  indefinitely  fixed — in  one 
division  it  comes  as  a separate  month  between  the  summer  and  winter  series; 
in  another,  as  a regular  month,  the  second  of  the  summer  series;  in  a second 
account  of  the  first  division  it  comes  as  the  fifth  of  the  summer  series. 

78  Teit,  1906a,  223;  1900,  237;  1906b,  517. 

77  Hill-Tout,  1904b,  334. 

78  Dixon,  317. 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


139 


but  there  are  two  distinct  breaks  in  the  series.  The  first  break  occurs 
between  “se'minim  po'ko”  (seed  moon),  the  first  month  of  the  year 
count,  and  “tem  tsa'mpautom  po'ko”  (little  tree  freeze  moon),  the 
second  month.  The  other  irregularity  occurs  between  “bo'ekmen 
po'ko”  (trail  breaking  open)  and  “kiilo'kbepinem  po'ko”  (a  reference 
to  the  extreme  heat,  for  the  explanation  is  that  old  women — kiilo’kbe — 
are  said  to  die  of  the  heat  this  month).  Between  these  two  months 
there  are  only  two  other  periods,  one  referring  to  the  spring;  the 
name  of  the  other  is  untranslated.  It  seems  safest  to  regard  this 
Maidu  calendar  as  fragmentary. 

The  Aleuts79  have  named  one  month  tugid ’igamak,  or  the  “big 
month.”  It  corresponds  to  our  January,  and  the  explanation  is  that 
it  is  longer  than  the  others.  It  seems  peculiar  that  it  should  be  the 
eleventh  of  their  year  count. 

In  the  Southwest,  at  least  among  the  Pueblos,  the  solstices,  deter- 
mined by  careful  observation,  divided  the  year  into  two  series  of  six 
months  each.  The  method  of  adjusting  six  lunations  to  a half  year 
is  unknown.  The  few  days  which  are  unaccounted  for  were  prob- 
ably disregarded.  They  may  have  been  occupied  in  observations  of 
the  sun ’s  position,  and  in  waiting  for  it  to  rise  at  the  proper  point ; for 
the  Zuni80 — and  probably  the  other  Pueblo  Indians — like  the  Nootka, 
believe  the  sun  to  rise  at  the  same  point  for  about  four  days,  the  last 
of  which  is  the  solstice. 

As  for  the  calendars  of  the  Indians  of  other  areas,  there  was  no 
definite  provision  for  intercalation.  The  only  indication  that  the  dis- 
crepancy was  felt,  is  the  occurrence  of  the  thirteen-month  year. 


TYPES  OP  CALENDARS 

If  we  use  the  nomenclature  of  the  months  and  the  basis  of  the  year 
as  determining  factors,  the  calendars  of  the  Indians  fall  into  three 
classes : 

1.  Descriptive. 

2.  Astronomical. 

3.  Numeral. 

Within  each  type  there  are  minor  variations,  and  even  some  over- 
lapping between  types  where  the  tribes  are  closely  connected,  geo- 

79  Wenjaminow,  in  Schiefner,  329.  The  “big  month”  is  common  among 
many  tribes,  but  there  is  no  specific  statement  that  its  name  elsewhere  refers 
to  the  length  of  the  period. 

80  Stevenson,  108. 


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graphically  or  culturally.  There  seems  to  be  no  definite  linking  of 
the  variations  with  each  other,  or  with  any  particular  feature  of 
the  three  types.  In  this  general  classification  a number  of  tribes  are 
omitted  because  the  evidence  concerning  them  is  insufficient  to  war- 
rant a definite  grouping ; but  in  no  case  does  the  information  available 
conflict  with  the  classification  made.  Map  1 shows  the  distribution 
of  the  three  types. 


DESCRIPTIVE  TYPE 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a more  simple  form  of  time-reckoning 
than  this.  The  calendar  consists  merely  of  descriptive  designations  for 
the  lunar  periods,  the  count  commencing  with  some  natural  event  of 
importance  to  the  Indian.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  use  of  astro- 
nomical knowledge  either  for  rectification  of  the  year  count  or  for 
the  annual  starting  point.  The  Mackenzie81  and  Northeastern82  and 
Southeastern  Woodland  areas,  know  this  type  only.  In  the  Southwest 
it  occurs  among  the  Pima  and  the  Navaho;  but  these  are  “border” 
tribes  which  differ  in  other  respects  from  the  intensive  Pueblo  form 
of  the  Southwestern  culture.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  these 
two  tribes  have  a simple  calendar  and  are  apparently  uninfluenced 
by  the  complex  methods  of  the  neighboring  Pueblos.  The  Pima 
begin  the  year  at  the  time  of  the  saguaro  harvest,  about  the  first  of 
June.83  The  beginning  of  winter  (about  October)  marks  the  first  of 
the  Navaho  year.84  The  Maidu  of  California,  who  also  have  this  type 
of  calendar,  commence  their  year  with  the  spring  when  the  flowers 
bloom,  or  the  tassels  appear  on  the  oaks.85  According  to  one  account,8*1 
even  the  Tlingit  of  the  Northwest  Coast  use  a purely  descriptive 
nomenclature  for  their  months. 

In  simple  calendars  such  as  these,  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the 
choice  of  terrestrial  events  for  names;  they  refer  to  the  customs  of 
man,  the  habits  of  wild  animals  or  birds,  climatic  conditions,  or  the 
ripening  of  various  fruits  and  berries.  The  beginning  of  the  year 
varies  also. 

An  intermediate  stage  between  the  purely  descriptive  and  the 
astronomical  classes  of  calendars  is  to  be  recognized  in  those  which 

81  Except  the  Ahtena,  who  have  numeral  designations,  and  therefore  come 
under  the  third  class.  This  exception  is  not  strange,  for  the  Ahtena  are  geo- 
graphically close  to  the  Northwestern  tribes  where  numerals  are  common. 

82  Including  {he  Plains  Cree. 

83  Russell,  1905,  45. 

Franciscan  Fathers,  58. 

85  Kroeber,  ms.;  Dixon,  217. 

so  Petitot,  18765. 


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141 


include  thirteen  or  more  periods  in  the  yearly  count.  The  larger 
number  of  moons  suggests  a feeble  attempt  to  correlate  an  essentially 
lunar  calendar  with  the  solar  year.  Since  this  form  of  reckoning 
does  not  definitely  show  an  astronomical  basis,  it  is  regarded  as  a 
variation  of  the  purely  descriptive  type — unless  additional  features 
place  it  in  one  of  the  two  other  classes.  This  thirteen-moon  descriptive 
subtype  is  confined  to  no  particular  area,  but  occurs  sporadically.87 
Thirteen-moon  calendars  are  also  found  among  tribes  using  the  other 
types. 


ASTRONOMICAL  TYPE 

In  the  Northwest  and  Southwest  areas,  and  among  several  Eskimo 
groups,  the  descriptive  system  is  used  in  combination  with  the  recog- 
nition of  the  solstices. 

The  solstices  may  mark  the  division  of  the  months  into  a summer 
and  a winter  series,  as  among  the  Bella  Coola,88  Makah,89  Luiseno,90 
Diegueno,9'  Zuni,02  and  Hano;93  or  merely  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
as  among  the  Greenland,94  Ungava95  and  Central  Eskimo,90  the 
Nootka,97  and  Tewa  and  Jemez  ;98  or,  one  or  both  solstices  may  be  non- 
lunar  periods  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  year,  as  in  the  calen- 
dars of  the  Aleut,99  the  four  Kwakiutl  tribes100 — Nimkish,  Koskimo, 
Mamalelekala,  and  Nakwartok — and  the  Bella  Coola.101 

The  rising  of  the  constellations  apparently  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  year  among  the  Kaniagmiut  Eskimo102 — their  first  month  being 
named  “kabjaxgun,”  or  “the  Pleiades  begin  to  rise”;  their  second, 
“tugaxgun”  or  “tagegun,”  “Orion  rises  ” 

87  The  following  are  a few  of  the  tribes  which  divide  their  year  into  thirteen 
or  more  periods,  apparently  without  an  astronomical  basis:  Ahtena,  Plains  Cree, 
Kansa,  Blackfoot,  Chippewa,  Natchez,  and  Choctaw. 

88  Boas,  1898,  41. 

88  Swan,  91. 

88  Du  Bois,  165. 

87  Idem. 

82  Stevenson,  108. 

88  Fewkes,  1899,  260,  275. 

84  Cranz,  211. 

88  Turner,  202. 

88  Boas,  1888,  597;  Hall,  323. 

87  Sapir  (ms.).  Sproat,  123,  indicates  a recognition  of  both  solstices,  but 
not  as  marking  the  beginning  of  the  year 

88  Harrington,  J.  P.,  61. 

88  Wenjaminow,  in  Schiefner,  329. 

100  Boas,  1909,  412. 

101  Boas,  1898,  41. 

i°2Dawydow,  in  Schiefner,  330. 


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Month  designations  referring  to  the  solstitial  ceremonials  often 
replace  the  descriptive  names.  This  ritualistic  nomenclature  has  its 
fullest  development  among  the  Hopi,103  who  name  each  of  their  moons 
from  the  chief  ceremony  of  each  period.  On  the  Northwest  Coast  one 
or  more  months  are  sometimes  named  from  ceremonials,  or  ceremonial 
implications ; but  never  the  entire  series. 

It  is  by  no  means  strange  that  the  Eskimo  should  notice  the  winter 
solstice  and  celebrate  the  sun’s  approach,  for  the  arrival  of  the  lumin- 
ary means  the  promise  of  a radical  change  in  their  life,  affecting  every 
phase  of  their  activities.  The  tribes  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast  on  the 
other  hand  are  essentially  canoe  using  peoples.  Here  the  winter  sol- 
stice attracts  attention  because  of  the  storminess  of  the  period.  We 
have  evidence  that  its  observance  is  of  economic  importance  among  the 
Nootka,104  who  in  order  to  gain  the  greatest  success  in  their  hunting 
and  fishing,  plan  a series  of  ’o-sirmtc’  ceremonies  for  the  year,  as 
already  described.  The  general  similarity  in  complicated  ceremonial- 
ism, the  means  of  sustenance,  and  other  phases  of  culture  throughout 
the  North  Pacific  Coast,  indicate  that  in  this  entire  area  economic  con- 
ditions coupled  with  magico-religious  beliefs  are  fundamental  to  the 
importance  attached  to  the  solstices.  This  also  applies  to  the  South- 
west. Here  we  have  an  agricultural  people,  with  rituals  associated 
with  the  sun’s  return  and  departure  and  with  the  growth  of  the  crops. 


NUMERAL  TYPE 

This  type  of  calendar  comprises  those  counts  in  which  numeral 
designations  have  partly  or  wholly  replaced  the  descriptive  terms. 
It  occurs  only  among  the  Northwest  tribes  and  closely  connected  peo- 
ples105— the  northern  Plateau  and  northern  California  tribes,  and  the 
Eskimo  of  southern  Alaska.  The  Yurok  alone  use  the  numeral  desig- 
nations with  a definite  astronomical  basis ; the  months,  numbered  to  the 
tenth  (after  which  descriptive  terms  are  used),  begin  with  the  winter 
solstice. 


losFewkes,  1897,  254ff.;  1900,  631ff.;  1903,  20-23. 

104Sapir  (ms.). 

ins  Ginzel,  148,  gives  a vague  reference  to  “der  danischen  Forsehungs-expedi- 
tion  von  1886  ’ ’ in  which  he  claims  that  the  Eskimo  of  East  Greenland  have 
only  numeral  designations  for  their  months.  Another  case  of  the  use  of  num- 
erals— although  not  in  connection  with  the  month  series — is  that  of  the  North- 
west Coast  Kaigani  who,  according  to  Radloff  (307),  number  their  days. 


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143 


Only  the  StsEelis10”  combine  numeral  and  ritualistic  designations 
in  the  same  series.  The  Kaniagmiut107  and  Aleut108  have  merely  a 
trace  of  the  numerals;  the  former  name  one  month  “agwinyx,”  or 
the  sixth;  the  latter  number  their  first  month,  “kadu'gix,”  but  some- 
times apply  a descriptive  name.  The  Ahtena108  recognize  fifteen  small 
periods  in  the  year,  with  only  numeral  appellations.  The  Tlingit, 
according  to  one  account,110  designate  their  tenth  and  eleventh  months 
by  the  numerals,  although  descriptive  terms  are  also  used.  The 
Chilkat,  a division  of  the  Tlingit,  “are  said  to  count  all  their  months, 
instead  of  naming  them.’’11'  The  Lillooet,  Shush  wap,  and  Thompson 
Indians  (Lower  Thompson  and  Spence’s  Bridge  bands)  number  the 
months  up  to  the  tenth  or  the  eleventh  ;112  sometimes  descriptive  terms 
are  used  with  these,  and  in  many  cases  actually  replace  them.  The 
Lower  Thompson  make  less  use  of  the  descriptive  names.  Among 
all  the  Thompson  tribes,  the  period  immediately  following  the  num- 
bered months  is  of  variable  length,  and  termed  the  “remainder  of 
the  year.’’  The  Klamath  calendar  counts  over  the  fingers  of  the 
hand113 — a method  that  seems  to  be  a modification  of  the  numeral  one. 
The  Eastern  Porno  and  Huchnom  introduce  a few  finger-named  moons 
among  their  descriptive  ones.  Of  the  Blackfoot,  Wissler  says:  “There 
is  little  consistency  in  the  nomenclature  of  the  moons  . . . our  infor- 
mation implying  that  they  were  considered  more  by  numerals  than 
by  names.  ’ ’ He  follows  this  statement  with  a list  of  descriptive  terms, 
divided  into  a summer  and  a winter  series.114 

SIMILARITIES  BETWEEN  THE  TYPES 
The  descriptive  element  appears  in  practically  all  North  American 
calendars.  Of  the  astronomical  type,  the  Haida  and  the  Tsimshian 
are  entirely  descriptive  except  for  the  occurrence  of  a “between 
month.’’115  In  the  numeral  groups  the  descriptive  names  occur  either 
in  place  of  or  along  with  the  numbers.  Only  the  Ahtena  and  Klamath 
have  the  entire  series  of  months  numbered  or  ‘ ‘ fingered.  ’ ’ The  Aleut 

Jo®  Hill-Tout,  1904b,  334. 

io7  W enjaminow,  in  Schiefner,  330. 

ms  Dawydow,  in  Schiefner,  329. 

io9  Baer,  100. 

no  Swanton,  1908,  426. 

in  Idem,  427. 

H2  Teit,  1906a,  223;  1900,  237;  1906b,  517. 
ns  Gatschet,  1890,  74-76. 
m Wissler,  44. 

n®  Even  though  the  Tsimshian  and  one  group  of  the  Haida  have  only  twelve 
moons,  including  the  “between  month,”  they  have  been  classed  with  the 
astronomical  type. 


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and  Kaniagmiut  each  have  but  one  month  numbered ; the  former  apply 
a descriptive  name  to  the  same  month. 

The  occurrence  of  a thirteen-moon  year  shows  some  attempt  to 
solve  the  real  problem  of  a calendar ; and  is  but  a little  less  refined 
than  the  scheme  of  a “between  month.”  As  already  stated,  this 
thirteen-moon  count  is  here  construed  as  a variation  of  the  descrip- 
tive type,  since  the  method  of  intercalation  is  vague  and  apparently 
based  upon  no  astronomical  idea.  The  calendars  of  the  two  other 
classes  often  contain  thirteen  or  more  moons. 

Many  of  the  calendars  in  which  the  moons  are  numbered — either 
wholly  or  in  part — close  the  year  with  a non-lunar  period  of  variable 
length,  which  has  no  relation  to  the  solstices.  In  the  solstitial  years 
of  the  Bella  Coola  and  Kwakiutl,  the  non-lunar  periods  occur  at  the 
solstices ; the  former  use  a period  of  about  six  weeks  at  each  solstice.110 
In  the  case  of  the  Kwakiutl  the  name  of  one  moon  sometimes  covers 
two  lunations;  the  adjustment  is  in  midwinter.117  The  “remainder 
of  the  year”  or  indefinite  period  of  adjustment  occurs  at  different 
seasons  among  the  several  tribes.  Among  the  Thompson,  Lillooet,  and 
Shushwap,118  the  interval  begins  some  time  in  September  and  con- 
tinues into  November.  The  eleventh  month  of  the  Aleut  calendar  is 
somewhat  longer  than  the  others;  it  comes  about  January,  and  is 
called  the  big  month,  “tugid’igamak.”119 

The  distribution  of  the  tribes  using  the  numeral  type  of  calendar 
shows  a remarkable  grouping  around  the  North  Pacific  astronomical 
center,  in  which  the  calendars  begin  with  the  winter  solstice,  but  the 
numeral  calendars  are  not  solstitial — except  among  the  Yurok.  The 
Tlingit  begin  the  year  in  August,120  with  the  tenth  and  eleventh  months 
(the  only  numbered  ones)  occurring  in  May  and  June.  The  Aleut 
have  the  first  month  numbered.  It  comes  in  March.121  The  sixth 
month  of  the  Kaniagmiut  falls  in  January.122  The  Chehalis123  num- 
ber the  months  from  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  inclusive,  a period  corres- 
ponding to  our  February-July,  so  that  their  year  begins  about  Octo- 
ber. The  Thompson,  Lillooet,  and  Shushwap124  commence  their  year- 
ns Boas,  1898,  41. 
in  Boas,  1909,  412. 

n®  Teit,  1906a,  223;  1900,  237;  19066,  517. 
n®  Schiefner,  18566,  329. 

12®  Swanton,  1908,  425-427.  The  Wrangell  informant,  who  gave  no  numeral 
designations,  said  the  year  began  in  January. 

121  Schiefner,  18566,  329. 

122  Schiefner,  1856a,  330. 
i2s  Hill-Tout,  334. 

is*  Teit,  1906a,  223;  1900,  237;  19066,  517. 


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145 


counts  in  November,  numbering  the  months  up  to  the  tenth  or  the 
eleventh.  Descriptive  names  are  applied  to  some.  Although  most  of 
the  Shushwap  entered  their  winter  houses  (the  event  which  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  year)  a month  earlier  than  the  Thompson  Indians, 
they  began  the  year-count  with  the  same  month,  and  called  it  by  the 
same  name  referring  to  the  occupation  of  the  winter  houses. 


CENTERS  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

From  this  review  of  the  types  of  calendars  it  appears  that  there 
are  two  definite  areas  in  which  relatively  complex  systems  are  in 
use : the  North  Pacific  Coast  and  the  Southwest ; and  a third  with  a 
calendar  which  is  quite  simple  but  nevertheless  worked  out  on  an 
astronomical  basis : that  of  the  Eskimo.  Beyond  the  influence  of  these 
centers  the  simplest  methods  prevail — variegated  by  local  conditions 
and  colored  more  or  less  by  the  general  habits  of  each  people.  The 
elements  which  indicate  a higher  development  of  the  calendric  systems 
are  as  follows: 

1.  A recognition  of  the  solstices,  and  their  use  in  the  calendrical 
system. 

2.  A definite  intercalary  period. 

3.  The  division  of  the  year-count  into  two  series,  a summer  and 
a winter  series  of  months. 

4.  The  naming  of  the  moons  by  numerals  and  after  ceremonies. 

Since  these  features  have  been  previously  discussed,  only  a few 

general  remarks  are  necessary  here,  in  order  to  compare  the  several 
areas. 

Both  in  the  Northwest  and  Southwest  the  solstices  are  assigned  a 
definite  place  in  most  calendars,  and  all  the  Eastern  and  Central 
Eskimo — except  the  Copper  Eskimo125 — base  the  beginning  of  the 
year  on  the  solstitial  period. 

A definite  intercalary  period  appears  only  among  the  North  Pacific 
Coast  and  Northern  Plateau  tribes.  It  may  take  the  form  of  a 
“between  month,”  a period  named  for  one  or  both  solstices,  or  a 
variable  “remainder  of  the  year,”  each  of  which  has  been  discussed 
elsewhere.  Of  the  Eskimo,  the  Central  tribes  alone  have  a definite 
period  of  intercalation  or  rather  the  opposite ; but  even  this  depends 
upon  an  easily  recognized  phenomenon:  as  explained  above,  their 
month  “siringilang”  is  omitted  whenever  the  new  moon  and  the 
winter  solstice  coincide. 


125Jenness  (ms.). 


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The  division  of  the  year  into  two  groups  of  months  is  common  to 
the  Northwest  and  Southwest,  but  since  it  occurs  in  several  other 
places,120  little  importance  can  be  attached  to  it,  beyond  the  fact  that 
in  combination  with  other  factors  it  may  help  build  up  a more  ad- 
vanced system.  The  Southwestern  tribes  use  the  two  series  of  months 
with  the  solstices  as  pivots,  and  sometimes  there  is  a repetition  of  the 
winter  month  names  for  the  summer  months.127  In  these  matters  the 
tribes  of  Southern  California  have  probably  been  influenced  by  those 
of  the  Southwest.  The  Diegueno  repeat  the  month  designations;128 
the  Juaneno120  and  Luiseiio,130  however,  fail  to  do  so.  In  the  North- 
west the  repetition  of  the  month  designations  within  the  year  never 
occurs ; the  summer  and  winter  groupings  occur  in  comparatively  few 
tribes,  among  some  of  which  they  correspond  with  the  natural  seasons. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  numeral  nomenclature  is  confined 
to  the  Northwestern  and  closely  related  tribes;  and  that  a ceremonial 
nomenclature  is  common  to  both  the  Northwest  and  the  Southwest 
tribes — although  more  highly  developed  in  the  latter.  The  nature 
of  the  ceremonials  differs,  reflecting  the  type  of  culture.  In  the 
Southwest  the  ceremonies  are  symbolic  of  weather  conditions  favorable 
to  the  agricultural  pursuits,  and  of  the  planting,  growth,  and  harvest 
of  the  crops.  The  Northwest  tribes  have  magical  rites  suited  to  the 
pursuits  of  a seagoing  people. 

In  summary,  the  regional  types  of  calendars  may  be  defined  thus: 

Northwest:  solstices  pivotal;  months  in  two  series;  intercalation  of 
non-lunar  period;  months  often  numbered,  occasionally  named  for 
ceremonies. 

12#  Other  tribes  in  which  the  summer  and  winter  series  of  months  are  found: 

Maidu  (Kroeber,  ms.). 

Bannock  (Clark,  260). 

Blackfoot  (Wissler,  44). 

Arikara  (Maximilian,  1906,  393). 

Choctaw  (Byington,  146). 

Kiowa  (Mooney,  1895-96). 

In  all  these  cases  the  division  is  seasonal. 

i2i  Fewkes,  1897,  258.  Fewkes  gives  the  Hopi  reason  for  the  repetition  of 
the  month  names — an  interesting  hint  dropped  by  a priest:  “When  we  of 
the  upper  world  are  celebrating  the  winter  Pa  moon,  the  people  of  the  under 
world  are  engaged  in  the  observance  of  the  Snake  or  Flute,  and  vice  versa.” 
These  ceremonials  of  the  two  worlds  are  synchronous.  “That  is  the  reason 
we  make  the  Snake  or  Flute  pahos  during  the  winter  season,  although  the 
dance  is  not  celebrated  until  the  corresponding  month  of  the  following  summer.” 
Compare  the  list  of  Kiowa  months  in  Mooney,  1898,  365-370. 

128  Du  Bois,  162;  Gilford,  1918. 

is#  Boseana,  303-304. 

iso  Du  Bois,  162. 


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147 


Southivest:  solstices  pivotal;  months  in  two  series,  sometimes  with 
duplicating  names ; designations  seasonally  or  ritualistically  descrip- 
tive. 

Central  Eskimo:  year  begins  with  winter  solstice;  sometimes  cor- 
rection of  lunar  series  at  this  period ; month  names  descriptive. 

Remainder  of  the  continent  north  of  Mexico:  no  use  made  of  sol- 
stices ; no  intercalation  or  system  of  correction ; month  names  descrip- 
tive of  seasonal  events,  very  rarely  numeral  or  of  ceremonial  signifi- 
cance ; rarely  in  two  series. 


DIFFUSION 

There  are  certain  similarities  in  the  month  designations  used  by 
the  various  tribes,  due  to  similar  modes  of  life,  climatic  conditions, 
or  to  diffusion.  References  to  cold  and  heat,  spring  and  autumn, 
animal,  bird,  or  fish  life,  wind,  fruits  and  berries,  are  found  in  prac- 
tically all  calendars.  A few  instances  will  show  the  peculiar  forms 
taken  among  different  tribes : 


Native  term 

Translation 

Tribe 

chup'-wik 

mush  ice  forms  (October-No- 

Eskimo  of 

vember) 

Lower  Yukon 

veenan  l’e'n  tchitchoo 

month  dog  is  cold  (January) 

Loucheux 

ghar  u wue  sa 

rabbit  eats  quickly  (Decem- 
ber) (meaning  the  days  are 

Tahltan 

getting  short) 

tl  ’in-tche'-te'w'& 

tail  of  the  dog  stretches  out 
to  the  fire  (January) 

Hare 

no“'ga  umubthi  ike 

snow  drifts  into  the  tent  of  the 
Ho"ga  (January) 

Omaha 

(Native  term  not  given) 

freezing  rivers  (November) 

Mandan 

kakakano 

pattering  showers  (February) 

Maidu 

(Native  term  not  given) 

rise  of  waters  (April-May) 

In  Southern  California 

tcokiapik 

rainy  month  (July  or  August) 

Pima 

su'dlivwin 

time  for  working,  i.e.,  sewing 

Eskimo  of 

(October) 

Point  Barrow 

ku'-bvi-jukh-pug-u-wik 

time  for  setting  seal  nets 

Unalit 

(October) 

nltsTts’osi,  or 

light  or  slender  wind 

Navaho 

nlch’i’ts’o'si 

(November) 

ya’ishja'-shch’ili 

I insert  the  small  grains  (June) 

Navaho 

ses-ka-hah 

sun  goes  for  long  days  (June) 

Onondaga 

veenan  nan  e'ne'itchi 

month  of  the  long  day  (July) 

Loucheux 

te'  ey 

(day  continued) 

ka'ui  tso'n  po'ko 

ground  burning  moon  (July) 

Maidu 

(Native  term  not  given) 

moon  of  the  noseisi  of  the  little 
serpent  (November) 

Arikara 

131  This  use  of  “nose”  is  perhaps  explained  by  the  Thompson  Indian  calen- 
dar “tenth  moon,”  or,  laxaks,  “first  of  the  run,”  or  “nose”  of  ascending  fish. 
Teit,  1900,  237. 


148 


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In  addition  to  such  general  designations  there  are  others  widely 
distributed  over  an  area  where  a particular  phenomenon  occurs. 
References  to  berries  are  numerous  throughout  the  north-central  part 
of  the  continent ; a salmon  nomenclature,  in  Alaska,  the  North 
Pacific  Coast,  and  the  Northern  Plateau ; wild  rice  designations, 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes  among  the  tribes  who  to  a great 
extent  depend  upon  the  rice  for  food ; sore  eye  names,  from  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Mackenzie  region  down  through  the  Plains.  But  it  is 
remarkable  that  comparatively  few  tribes  are  represented  in  the  sore- 
eye  nomenclature,  and  that  other  hunting  tribes,  living  in  localities 
which  have  severe  winters,  never  mention  sore  eyes.  References  to 
birds,  their  migrations,  eggs,  and  moulting,  are  found  chiefly  among 
the  northern  peoples,  although  goose  and  eagle  nomenclatures  are 
widely  scattered.  These  designations  are  absent  from  the  California 
area,  even  though  bird  life  must  have  been  of  great  importance  to  the 
Indians  of  this  region. 

An  excellent  example  of  diffusion  is  shown  by  the  numeral  designa- 
tions: Aleut,  Kaniagmiut,  Ahtena,  Tlingit,  Chilkat,  StsEe'lis,  Shush- 
wap,  Thompson,  Lillooet,  Modoc,  and  Yurok. 

Underground  houses  were  common  among  the  Northern  Califor- 
nians and  tribes  inland  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast,  but  only  the  latter 
have  references  to  the  underground  house  in  their  month  designations. 
Even  here  they  occur  among  but  four  tribes : the  Thompson,  Lillooet, 
Shushwap,  and  Chilcotin. 

The  rutting  seasons  of  the  various  wild  animals  give  names  to  the 
months  among  the  hunting  peoples  of  the  Plains,  Mackenzie,  arid 
Plateau  regions.  The  Osage  calendar  has  very  few  other  names.132 

Often  occurrences  not  affecting  native  life  occasion  moon  names, 
as  is  shown  by  the  frog  nomenclature.  The  frogs,  whose  croaking 
in  the  springtime  is  of  course  noticeable  almost  everywhere,  are  men- 
tioned by  the  Delaware,  Malecite,  Eastern  Cree,  Montagnais,  Plains 
Cree,  Dakota,  and  Omaha. 

Many  other  examples  might  be  given,  but  these  will  show  that  local 
influences  play  an  important  part  even  in  the  centers  of  higher  develop- 
ment. 

Map  3 reviews  the  distribution  of  several  specific  elements  of 
month  designations. 


132  Maximilian,  1906,  300. 


i 


Map  3.  Some  Month  Names. 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


149 


CALENDAR  LISTS 

ASTRONOMICAL  TYPE 

The  following  tribes  use  the  astronomical  type  of  calendar:  Bella 
Coola,  Diegueho,  Haida  (Masset  and  Skidegate),  Hano,  Ilopi,  Jemez, 
Kwakiutl  (Koskimo,  Nakwartok,  Nimkish,  and  Mamalelekala),  Luiseiio, 
Makah,  Netchilli,  Nootka,  Piskwaus,  Salish,  Sl'ciatl,  Tewa,  Tusayan, 
Yurok,  and  Zuhi.  For  the  Yurok  month  list  see  the  numeral  type  of 
calendar.  The  Luiseiio  and  Diegueiio  lists  are  not  given,  for  it  is 
impossible  to  correlate  them  with  our  months. 

Netchilli  (Amundsen).  *1.  kapidra,  it  is  cold,  the  Eskimo  is  freezing.  2. 
hikkernaun,  the  sun  is  returning.  3.  ikiakparui,  the  sun  is  ascending.  4.  avonivi, 
the  seal  brings  forth  her  young.  5.  nechyialervi,  the  young  seals  are  taking 
to  the  sea.  6.  kavaruvi,  the  seals  are  shedding  their  coats.  7.  (first  part) 
noerui,  reindeer  bring  forth  their  young;  (second  part)  ichyavi  (I),  birds  are 
brooding.  8.  ichyavi  (II),  the  young  birds  are  hatched.  9.  amerairui  (I),  the 
reindeer  is  migrating  southward.  10.  amerairui  (II).  11.  akaaiarvi,  the  Eskimo 
lay  down  food  depots.  12.  hikkern  illun,  the  sun  disappears. 

Haida,  Masset  (Swanton).  1.  tan  qofia's,  black  bear  month.  2.  xlt  gias, 
laughing  goose  month.  3.  wit  gias,  russet-backed  thrush  month.  *4.  ''a'nsga-i 
la'  qofias,  month  berries  are  forming;  or,  qla'gAn  gias,  halibut  month.  5.  wa'al 
gwalga-i,  means  weather  is  still  somewhat  cold.  6.  qofiqo'ns,  great  month. 

7.  s'an  gias,  killer  whale  month.  (Because  the  noise  caused  by  the  stripping 
of  the  bark  from  the  c$dar  trees  is  like  the  blowing  of  the  killer  whales). 

8.  kli's’als,  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  the  fact  that  animals  begin  to 
get  fat.  9.  qA'lga  qofia's,  ice  month.  10.  q!e'daq!edas,  between  month.  11. 
dja  qofia’s,  digging  month.  12.  qo'ao  gia'fia',  standing  to  defecate.  13.  Tgitu'n 
qofia's,  goose  month. 

Haida,  Skidegate  (Swanton).  1.  sqalgofi  gida's,  young  fish.  2.  sqalgo'fi  q!a'-ias, 
old  fish.  *3.  ta'xet  gias,  sockeye  month.  4.  Ge'tGa  q!a'-idas,  between  month. 

5.  wit  gias,  russet-backed  thrush  month.  6.  Gan  Gala'n  qoans,  many  ripe  berries. 
7.  wal  Gal  qoans,  many  potlatches.  8.  halwa'l  qoans,  means  that  many  salmon 
were  then  dried.  9.  xo'lGao  qoans,  means  that  salmon  jerk  about  in  creeks  to 
let  eggs  out.  10.  q!a'  GAna  gias,  probably  many  halibut  were  then  taken. 
11.  klis’als,  said  to  be  a contraction  of  the  word  for  empty  entrails  (refers  to 
animal  intestines  in  which  salmon  eggs  and  grease  were  kept).  12.  qofi  gia'di 
Ga'das,  signifies  that  food  is  almost  gone. 

Tsimshian  (Boas).  1.  the  intervening  month.  2.  spring  salmon  month. 
3.  month  when  olachen  is  eaten.  4.  month  when  olachen  is  cooked.  5.  (?). 

6.  egg  month.  7.  salmon  month.  8.  humpbacked  salmon  month.  9.  (t). 
10  spinning  top  month.  *11.  falling  leaf  month.  12.  taboo  month. 

Kwakiutl,  Nimkish  (Boas).  1.  wa'E'nx,  spawning  season.  2.  tsux.us£m,  first 
olachen  run.  *3.  q!waflE'nx,  raspberry  sprouting  season;  or,  ema£waeL!Enx, 
olachen  fishing  season.  4.  qlEmdzEklunx,  raspberry  season.  5.  gwa'tlEnx, 
huckleberry  season.  6.  nEklu'nx,  sallalberry  season.  7.  wule'tslEnx,  season 

* The  moons  are  throughout  given  in  the  order  which  they  occupy  in  our 
calendar  year.  That  is,  1 is  approximately  January  and  12  December.  The 
asterisk  denotes  the  moon  regarded  by  the  tribe  in  question  as  beginning  the 
series  or  opening  the  year. 


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of?  8.  XE'msxEmsde,  past,  [that  is  empty]  boxes?  9.  le'xEm,  wide  face. 

10.  £mEgwa'ba£e,  round  one  underneath,  that  is  the  moon  after  “wide  faee.” 

11.  gwa'xsEm,  dog  salmon  month.  12.  q!a'x£ala,  cleaned,  that  is  of  leaves. 
i3.  tsla'tapla,  split  both  ways  (the  winter  solstice). 

Ewakiutl,  Mamalelekala  (Boas).  1.  £ma'£walitslEnx,  season  of  floods?  2. 
£ma'£mawae'L£Enxe£na,  near  to  olachen  fishing  season.  *3.  tE'mklinx,  tree 
sprouting  season.  4.  qlEmdzEklunx,  raspberry  season.  5.  gwa'tlEnx,  huckle- 
berry season.  6.  nEklu'nx,  sallalberry  season.  7.  wule'tslEnx,  season  of? 

8.  xE'msxEmsde,  past,  [that  is  empty]  boxes?  9.  le'xEm,  wide  face.  10. 
£mEgwa'ba£e,  round  one  underneath,  that  is  the  moon  after  wide  face.  11. 
wule'tslEnx,  season  of?  12.  q!a'x£ala,  cleaned,  that  is  of  leaves.  13.  tsla'tapla, 
split  both  ways  (the  winter  solstice). 

Kwakiutl,  Nakwartok  (Boas).  1.  waeE'nx,  spawning  season.  2.  £no'la, 
elder  brother.  3.  te'kwaba£e,  under,  that  is  under  elder  brother.  4.  e'daba£e, 
next  one  under,  that  is  next  one  under  elder  brother.  *5.  sEmx.“SEm,  trying  oil 
moon.  6.  nE'mnala,  sockeye  month  [?].  7.  Aa'tsa£ya,  between  good  and  bad 

weather  [?].  8.  go'elEnx,  raspberry  season.  9.  £na,£nolasna'qag  ila,  eldest 

brother.  10.  helatsla,  right  moon?  11.  xe'kwalil,  sweeping  houses,  that  is,  for 
winter  ceremonial.  12.  ma’g-a£ya,  staying  in  dance  house  . 13.  tsla'tapla,  split 
both  ways  (the  winter  solstice). 

Kwakiutl,  Koskimo  (Boas).  1.  wa'la£wa,  ? 2.  qlEgux.«La',  nothing  on  it? 

3.  qlE'nu,  no  sap  in  trees.  4.  go'£lEnx,  raspberry  season.  5.  gwa'tlEnx,  huckle- 
berry season.  6.  nEklu'nx,  sallalberry  season.  7.  niElalalasgEm  (tsla'tapla), 
southeast  wind  moon.  8.  nE’mnala,  sockeye  moon.  9.  £n5'la,  elder  brother. 
10.  te'kwaba£e,  under,  that  is  under  elder  brother.  11.  dzEx.udzEwi'tsEm,  pile 
driving  moon.  12.  wa'£mitsEm,  fish  in  river  moon.  13.  tsla'tapla,  split  both 
ways  (the  winter  solstice). 

Bella  Coola  (Boas).  1.  sxolE'mx.EnEm.  2.  alao'nstimot.  3.  siaq 'u'm.  4. 
siqio'lx..  5.  sino'moak-.  6.  seE'mt,  summer  solstice.  7.  si'i-xum.  8.  sexexe'mut. 

9.  sinuLla'lsEmtEnEm.  10  tsi  sitak.ans  tsEau  Anaulikuts ’ai'x..  11.  lEmulen. 

12  seEmt,  winter  solstice. 

Nootka  (Sproat).  1.  hy-yeskikainilh,  month  of  the  most  snow.  2.  kahs-sit-imilh. 
3.  ay-yak-kamilh,  when  the  herrings  spawn.  4.  outlohkamilh,  month  when 
the  geese  leave  for  the  lakes  to  breed.  5.  oh-oh-kamilh,  in  this  month  strange 
geese  from  a distance  fly  high  on  their  way  to  inland  lakes.  6.  tahklahdkamilh, 
before  the  end  of  this  month  salmon  berries  have  begun  to  ripen.  7.  kovv- 
wishimilh,  many  salmon  berries  (“this  moon  stays  for  two  days”).  8.  aho-sitsis. 
9.  satsope-us,  named  from  the  salmon  so  called.  10.  enakonsimilh,  evidently 
from  the  salmon  so  called.  11.  cheeyahk-amilh.  *12.  mah-mayksoh,  elder 
brother  (this  month  is  nearer  our  November  than  December).  13.  kathlahtik, 
brother  (this  moon  “does  not  travel,  but  stays  for  two  days”). 

Nootka,  Ho’  ai’th •«  tribe  (Sapir).  1.  qala  ttkt’ , younger  (same  term  as  for  a 

man ’s  younger  brother.  2.  hayt-sqaqeiml, moon.  3.  q Mxsttimd,  water  becoming 

muddied  moon.  4.  ’a-ya-qeiml,  herring  spawning  moon.  5.  ho-’uqumd,  migratory 
birds  congregating  on  the  rocks  moon.  6.  t’a-ktla-t’othmd,  bead  stringing 
moon.  7.  qawactmtl,  salmon  berry  moon.  8.  ’-a-sitsas,  bees  (and  wasps)  (make 
nests)  on  the  ground.  9.  sat’sopas,  tyee  salmon  come  up.  10.  htmk’o-’asuml, 
dog  salmon  moon.  11.  t’ci-ya.qemil,  cutting  up  moon  (fish  cut  up  for  smoking). 
*12.  ’ma-’mt-qso,  older  (brother  or  sister). 

Nootka,  Tsica-’athn  tribe  (Sapir).  *1.  hayask«quml,  stormy  moon.  2. 
q’adxsittmd,  dirty  water  moon.  3.  ’.ayaqimd,  herring  spawning  moon.  4. 
’.o-tl’-o  kwtmd,  going  off  one  after  another  moon  (refers  to  the  migration  of 
various  kinds  of  ducks).  5.  ho^a-qtmd,  flying  up  in  the  air  moon  (refers  to 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


151 


passage  of  the  California  geese).  6.  ’-a-sitsas,  bee  daughter  (refers  to  the 
swarming  of  the  bees).  7.  t’ak'tla-  ’tak't-tmd,  stringing  salmon  berries  on 
fine  stems  of  maidenhair  fern  moon.  8.  sat’sopas,  tyee  salmon  daughter.  9. 
hmiko-’ asimd,  dog  salmon  moon.  10.  t’ci-ya-qtmtl,  cutting  up  moon.  11. 
qala-tik',  younger  brother  of  male.  12.  ’ma-’mi-q' so' , oldest  (brother,  sister). 

Makah  (Swan).  1.  a-a-kwis-put’hl,  month  the  whale  has  its  young.  2. 
kluk-lo-chis-to-put’hl,  month  the  weather  begins  to  grow  better,  days  longer, 
and  the  women  go  alone  for  firewood.  3.  o-o-lukh-put’hl,  month  the  fin-back 
whales  arrive.  4.  ko-kose-kar-dis-put ’hi,  month  of  sprouts  and  buds.  5.  kar- 
kwuch-put’hl,  month  of  the  strawberry  and  the  salmon  berry.  6.  hay-saik- 
toke-put’hl,  month  of  the  red  huckleberry.  7.  kar-ke-sup-he-put  ’hi,  month  of 
wild  currants,  gooseberries,  and  sallal.  8.  wee-kookh,  season  of  rest.  9.  kars- 
put’hl.  10.  kwar-te-put ’hi,  month  for  catching  a kind  of  rock  fish.  11.  cha- 
kairsh-put’hl,  season  of  winds  and  screaming  birds.  *12.  se-hwow-as-put  ’hi, 
month  the  California  gray  whale  makes  its  appearance. 

The  Makah  reckon  their  year  from  the  time  the  days  begin  to  lengthen. 
The  time  they  begin  to  shorten  is  also  noted. 

Siciatl  (Hill-Tout).  1.  tEm  kaikQ,  eagle  time.  2.  tEm  nEm,  time  when  big 
fUh  lay  eggs.  3.  tEm  sa'tskai,  budding  time.  4.  tEm  slem,  named  from  a large 
migratory  bird.  5.  tEm  tse'oHtse'oH,  the  diver  loon  month.  6.  tEm  k-weEk.wEl, 
salmonberry  time.  7.  tEm  saiuq,  redcap  raspberry  month.  8.  tEm  ta'ka, 
sallalberry  time.  9.  tEm  ok-wa'lEnuH,  time  when  fish  stop  running.  10. 
tEm  palk-a'l’nuH,  time  when  leaves  fade.  11.  tEm  Qa'setcin,  time  when  fish 
leave  the  streams.  12.  tEm  kwito'. 

Salish  (Hale,  in  Gallatin).  1.  skhuwusus,  cold.  2.  skiniramun,  a certain 
herb.  3.  skapatru,  snow  gone.  4.  spatlwm,  bitter  root.  5.  stagamawus,  going 
to  root  the  ground.  6.  itkhwa,  camass  root.  7.  saantkhlkwo,  hot.  8.  silamp, 
gathering  berries.  9.  skilues,  exhausted  salmon.  10.  skaai,  dry;  or,  kinui- 
etkhluten,  house  building.  11.  keshmakwaln,  snow.  *12.  suslik wti. 

Piskwaus  (Hale,  in  Gallatin).  1.  skiniramun.  2.  skapatskiltin.  3.  skasalka. 
4.  katsosamtan.  5.  stsaok.  6.  kapakalakhtin.  7.  silamp.  8.  tshepamtam 
9.  panpatkhlikhen.  10.  skaai.  11.  sustikwa.  *12.  skwusus. 

Tewa,  San  Juan  (Harrington).  *1.  ’ojip’o,  ice  moon.  2.  depih®p’o,  moon 
when  coyotes  are  frightened,  (cliffs  fall  down  and  coyotes  are  startled).  3. 
ts<nqwirisitsap ’o,  lizard  belly  cut  month  (because  it  is  said  that  lizards’  navel 
cords  are  then  cut).  4.  kapabep’o,  month  when  leaves  break  forth.  5.  kas®p’o, 
tender  leaf  month.  6.  kak'amp’o,  dark  leaf  month;  or,  saijqwamp ’o,  St.  John 
month.  7.  p’ewep’o,  month  of  ripeness;  or,  santiagrup ’o,  St.  James  month. 
8.  tntsap’o,  wheat  cutting  month.  9.  k'arip’o,  take  home  month.  10.  kajemup’o, 
month  of  falling  leaves.  11.  h ce  we’jyep’o,  month  when  all  is  gathered  in.  12. 
nup'ap’o,  Christmas  month,  literally  “ashes  fire.” 

Tewa,  Santa  Clara  (Harrington).  *1.  ’ojip’o,  ice  moon.  2.  hodop’o,  crazy 
moon  (because  of  boisterous  weather;  probably  adapted  from  the  Spanish 

febero  loco).  3.  kapahep’o,  month  when  leaves  break  forth.  4.  . 5. 

k' ur;kop ’o,  corn  planting  month.  6.  nampap’o,  agriculture  month;  or,  saijqwamp’o, 
St.  John  month.  7.  kwoejip’o,  horse  month;  or,  santiat/up ’o,  St.  James  month. 
8.  tatsap’o,  wheat  cutting  month.  9.  luep’ep’o,  all  ripe  month;  or,  k'ltnt'ep’o, 
month  when  corn  is  taken  in.  10.  p'ojep’o,  harvest  month.  11.  lunwe’^ep’o, 
month  when  all  is  gathered  in.  12.  nup'ap’o,  Christmas  month,  literally  “ashes 
fire.  ’ ’ 

Teua,  San  Ildefonso  (Harrington).  *1.  ’ojip’o,  ice  month.  2.  wap’o,  wind 
month.  3.  kapabep’o,  month  when  leaves  break  forth.  4.  kawarep’o,  month 
when  leaves  open.  5.  k'ujjkop’o,  corn  planting  month.  6.  saijqwamp’o,  St.  John 


152 


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month.  7.  santia^up’o,  St.  James  month.  8.  ta  tsap’o,  wheat  cutting  month. 

9.  ’ap’opap’o,  month  when  sirup  is  made.  10.  kajemup’o,  month  of  falling 
leaves.  11.  hflewe’^ep’o,  month  when  all  is  gathered  in.  12.  nup'ap’o,  Christmas 
month,  literally  ‘ ‘ ashes  fire.  ’ ’ 

Tewa,  Nambe  (Harrington).  *1.  ’ojip’o,  ice  moon.  2.  k ’osindisitsap ’o, 
lizard  belly  cut  moon  (because  it  is  said  that  lizards’  navel  cords  are  then  cut). 
3.  kapabep’o,  month  leaves  break  forth.  4.  kawarep’o,  month  when  leaves 
open.  5.  k’MTjkop’o,  corn  planting  month.  6.  saijqwamp’o,  St.  John  month. 
7.  santiagrup  ’o,  St.  James  month.  8.  tatsap’o,  wheat  cutting  month.  9.  p’ewep’o, 
month  of  ripeness.  10.  kajemup’o,  month  of  falling  leaves.  11.  hcewe’^ep’o, 
month  when  all  is  gathered  in.  12.  nwp'  ap  ’o,  Christmas  month,  literally  ‘ 1 ashes 
fire.” 

Jemez  (Harrington).  *1.  sek^up’a,  flying  ant  moon.  2.  hitdap’a,  cedar  dust 
wind  month.  3.  no’otswp’a,  small  leaf  moon.  4.  no’otap’a,  big  leaf  month. 

5.  tsak'wp’a,  baby  antelope  month.  6.  saFwap’a,  St.  John  month.  7.  satejagup 

St.  James  month.  8.  pakwap’a,  festival  month.  9.  ■.  10.  hatsip’a, 

husking  month.  11.  patopakwap ’a,  fall  and  winter  festival  month.  12.  numisap’a, 
Christmas  month. 

The  difficult  orthography  of  Harrington  has  been  somewhat  simplified  in  the 
foregoing  five  lists. 

Zuhi  (Cushing  in  Harrington).  *1.  i'-koh-pu-ya-tchun,  growing  white  crescent, 
or  i-shoh-k' o'a-pu-yii-tehun,  crescent  of  conception.  2.  ta-yiim-tchu-ya-tchun, 
because  boughs  are  broken  by  the  weight  of  descending  snow.  3.  o-nan-u'l-ak- 
k’ia-kwum-ya-tchun,  snow  lies  not  in  the  pathway.  4.  thli'-te-kwa-na-k ’ia-tsa- 
na-ya-tchun,  moon  of  the  lesser  sand  storms.  5.  thli-te-kwa-na-k’ia-thla'-na- 
yii-tchun,  moon  of  the  greater  sand  storms.  6.  ya-tchum-kwa-shi-am-o-na,  cres- 
cent of  no  name.  7.  — , yellow.  8.  , blue.  9.  , red. 

10.  , white.  11. , iridescent  or  variegated.  12. , black. 

Zuhi  (Stevenson).  1.  taiyamchu,  limbs  of  the  trees  broken  by  snow. 

2.  o'nanulakiakwame,  no  snow  in  road.  3.  ‘Hli'tekwakla'sanna,  little  wind 
month.  4.  ‘Hli'tekwakla’hlan'na,  big  wind  month.  5.  kwash'iamme,  no  name. 

6.  . 7. . 8. . 9. . 10. . 11. . 

*12.  i'kopu,  turning  or  looking  backward  (the  sun  father  pauses  awhile  before 
returning). 

For  the  summer  months  the  names  of  the  winter  months  are  repeated. 
llano  (Fewkes).  1.  elo-p’o,  wooden  cup  moon  (refers  to  cups  made  of  wood, 
used  in  a ceremonial  game).  2.  ka'uton-p’o,  singing  moon.  3.  yopobi-p’o, 
cactus  flower  moon.  4.  pu'nka-p’o,  wind  break  moon.  5.  senko-p’o,  to  plant 
secretly  moon  (refers  to  planting  of  sweet  corn  in  nooks  and  crevices,  where 
children  may  not  see  it,  for  the  “Niman  Katcina”.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  nameless 
moons,  or  a repetition  of  five  winter  moons.  *11.  ce'ni-p’o,  horn  moon  (possibly 
a reference  to  the  Aaltu  of  the  New  Fire  ceremony).  12.  tuntai-p’o,  winter 
solstice  moon. 

The  months  from  June  to  October  are  nameless,  that  is  they  repeat  the 
designations  for  the  winter  months. 

Hopi  (Fewkes,  1897).  1.  pamii'iyamu.  2.  powa'mii'iyawfi.  3. 

ii'cumu'iyawu.  4.  kwiyaomii'iyawu.  5.  hakitonmu'iyawu.  6.  kelemii'iyamu. 

7.  kyamii'iyamu.  8.  pamii'iyamfi.  9.  powa'mii'iyamu.  10.  hiiiikmu'iyamil. 

11.  ii'ciimu'iyamu.  12.  kelemii'iyamu  (this  month  is  nearer  our  November). 
*13.  kyamii'iyamu. 

The  second  part  of  October,  number  eleven  above,  is  said  to  be  called  tiihoe. 
This  would  make  fourteen  months  to  the  ceremonial  year.  The  word  miiiyamu 


means  moon. 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


153 


Hopi  (Fewkes,  1903).  1.  pamiiryawu.  2.  powamiiryawu.  3.  iiciimiiryawu. 

4.  . 5.  kyamiiryawu.  6.  . 7.  pamiiryauil.  8.  powamiiryauu. 

9.  No  name.  10.  No  name.  *11.  kelemuryawu.  12.  kyamiiryawu. 

The  Hopi  year  is  solstitial.  The  winter  solstice  ceremonies  mark  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year. 


NUMERAL  TYPE 

The  following  tribes  use  the  numeral  type  of «calendar:  Aleut, 
Kaniagmiut,  Lillooet,  Modoc,  Shush  wap,  StsEe'lis,  Thompson  (Lower 
Thompson  and  Spence’s  Bridge  Bands),  Tlingit,  and  Yurok.  The 
Ahtena,  who  also  use  the  numerals,  are  not  listed,  since  the  names  of 
the  months  are  not  given. 

Aleut  (Wenjaminow,  in  Schiefner).  1.  tugid’igamak,  the  great  month  (it  is 
longer  than  the  others).  2.  anulgi'lak',  sea  raven  month;  when  one  hunts  the 
uril  with  nets.  *3.  kadu'gix,  the  first;  or,  kisagu'nak.  4.  agaluji'gix-k’isagu'nak’; 
also  sada'gan  lc’agik,  when  one  is  outside  the  houses.  5.  ic’ic’xux;  or, 
c’ig’um  tugida',  flower  month.  6.  ’cagali'lim  tugida';  or,  c’agaligi'm  tugida', 
young  animal  month.  7.  sad’i'gnam  tugida,  month  the  young  animals  become 
fat.  8.  ugnam;  or,  uxnam  tugida',  the  warm  month.  9.  c’lju'lim  tugida'. 

10.  kima'dgim  tugida',  hunting  month.  11.  kima'dgim  kaxjin  tugida',  month 
after  the  hunting  month.  12.  agalgu'gak;  or,  agalga'luk’,  when  one  hunts 
sea  lions. 

Kaniagmiut  (Dawydow,  in  Schiefner).  1.  agwinyx,  the  sixth  month. 
2.  kypnyxc'ik,  when  one  cuts  up  dried  fish  into  pieces.  3.  kwigit-annit,  the  ice 
breaks.  4.  manixc’ixwak,  the  raven  lays  eggs.  5.  manixc’ic’ak,  the  birds 
which  stayed  on  the  island  during  the  winter  lay  eggs.  6.  kaig  jaat,  the  sea 
robins  have  their  young.  7.  managxat.  *8.  kabjaxgun,  the  Pleiades  begin  to 
rise.  9.  tugaxgun;  or,  tagegun,  Orion  rises.  10.  kanc’aun,  frost  on  the  grass. 

11.  ka?jus' auc*  i,  snow  appears  on  the  mountains.  12.  kaglagwik,  the  rivers  and 
sea  freeze. 

Tlingit,  Sitka  informant  (Swanton).  1.  tla'waq  di'si,  goose  month.  2.  s ! Ik 
di'si,  black  bear  month.  3.  hin  ta'nax  kaya'ni  di'si,  month  in  which  sea- 
flowers,  etc.,  begin  to  grow.  4.  q!ega  kaya'ni  di'si,  real  flower  month.  5.  djinka'ta, 
tenth  month.  6.  dji'nkat  wana'ka,  eleventh  month ; also  xat  di'si,  month  of 
salmon.  7.  Atga'  daxet  di'si,  month  when  everything  is  born.  8.  The  first  part, 
At  gata'  di'si,  month  in  which  everything  born  begins  to  fatten;  *the  second 
part,  cax-xyi',  because  all  birds  then  come  down  from  the  mountains.  9. 
dis  yA'di,  small  moon  or  moon  child.  10.  dis  Len,  big  moon.  11.  qoqa'ha  dis,  the 
month  in  which  people  have  to  shovel  snow  away  from  their  doors.  12. 
CA’nAx  dis.t 

StsEelis  (Hill-Tout).  1.  tEm  t’sE'lEwestEl,  season  for  putting  the  paddle 
away.  2.  tl’ka'tsEs,  fifth.  3.  t’qu'mEs,  sixth.  4.  tsau'ksES,  seventh.  5.  t’ka'tsas, 
eighth.  6.  toqEs,  ninth.  7.  apa'lEs,  tenth.  8.  umtsE'muksEl,  the  coming  together 
or  meeting  of  the  two  ends  of  the  year  (this  name  includes  September  also, 
although  the  latter  part  is  often  named  differently  as  here  indicated  under  9). 
9.  tEm  ya'auk;  time  of  the  dying  of  the  salmon.  *10.  tEm  pa'k  uk,  spring  salmon 
spawning  time.  11.  tEm  kwa'loq,  dog  salmon  spawning  season.  12.  tEm  ine'tla; 
or,  smetla's,  dancing  season. 

f Compare  the  Tlingit  months  as  given  by  the  Wrangell  informant,  listed  under 
the  descriptive  type.  Swanton  regards  the  list  given  by  the  Sitka  informant  as 
probably  the  more  ancient. 


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Lillooet  (Teit).  1.  Third  moon;  or  stexwauzi'ken,  middle  month — middle 
of  back  or  ridge.  2.  Fourth  moon;  or,  'nu'tskatEn,  coming  out  time  or  place. 
3.  Fifth  moon;  or  'skwelkwa'l,  green  moon;  or,  'skaptsS'l,  real  spring  or  Chinook 
wind  month.  4.  Sixth  moon;  or,  esla'kolkwallt,  leaves  green.  5.  Seventh  moon; 
or  kwo'ltus  esku'klep,  when  strawberries  are  ripe.  6.  Eighth  moon;  or 
kwolixtcu't,  ripen  self.  7.  Ninth  moon;  or,  spantsk,  summer.  8.  Tenth  moon; 
or,  Laq  a 'stso'qaza,  the  salmon  come.  9.  Eleventh  moon;  or,  'stsS'pEq,  boiling 
(the  Lillooet  boil  salmon  and  make  oil).  10.  Rest  of  the  year;  or,  Llwe'lsten, 
fall  or  autumn.  *11.  First  moon;  or,  'nu'lxten,  going  in  time  or  place.  12.  Second 
moon;  or,  tca'uamuxs  tceni'ken. 

Shushwap  (Teit).  1.  Third  moon;  or,  pelkutlami'n.  2.  Fourth 
moon;  or,  peska'pts,  spring  [winds]  month.  3.  Fifth  moon;  or,  pesx.ii'xem, 
[little]  summer  [moon].  4.  Sixth  moon;  or,  pelteke'liaiten.  5.  Seventh  moon, 
or,  peltepa'ntsk,  mid-summer  [month].  6.  Eighth  moon;  or,  pelka'kaldEmex, 
getting  ripe  month.  7.  Ninth  moon;  or,  peltemelik,  autumn  month.  8.  Tenth 
moon;  or,  peltex-ele'lx.tEn.  9.  Eleventh  moon;  or,  pelx-etci'kenten.  10.  Balance 
of  the  year;  or  pelwe'llsten.  *11.  First  moon;  or,  pelx-alu'lxten,  going  in  time. 
12.  Second  moon;  or  pestitc'qem. 

Thompson,  Spence’s  Bridge  Band  (Teit).  1.  Third  moon.  2.  Fourth  moon; 
or,  pEsqa'pts,  spring  [winds]  month.  3.  Fifth  moon;  or,  nxfi'itin,  coming  forth 
time  (people  come  out  of  winter  houses).  4.  Sixth  moon.  5.  Seventh  moon. 

6.  Eighth  moon;  or,  kwEkwS'kwait,  they  are  a little  ripe  (the  plural  diminutive 
form  of  “ kwiiit  ” meaning  ripe).  7.  Ninth  moon;  or,  texwauzsi'kentin,  middle 
time  (because  of  the  summer  solstice).  8.  Tenth  moon;  or  i.axa'ks,  first  of  run, 
or  “nose”  of  ascending  fish.  9.  The  next  moon;  or,  kwIsuT  [poor],  fish, 
kekaitka'in,  they  reach  the  source.  10.  The  rest  of  the  year;  or,  Lwa'istin,  fall 
time.  *11.  First  moon;  or,  tcukteukt.  12.  Second  moon;  or,  n’u'lxtin,  going 
in  time. 

Lower  Thompson  (Teit).  1.  Third  moon;  or,  wawi't  ta  sn’ulx-,  last  going  in. 

2.  Fourth  moon;  or,  nxu-xuet,  little  coming  out;  or,  skapts,  spring  or  warm 
wind.  3.  Fifth  moon;  or,  n’ulx-wa'uas,  going  in  again.  4.  Sixth  moon;  or, 
nxu'it,  coming  out.  5.  Seventh  moon.  6.  Eighth  moon.  7.  Ninth  moon.  8.  Tenth 
moon.  9.  Eleventh  moon;  or,  kokauxEmu's,  to  cook  food  a little.  10.  Autumn. 
*11.  First  moon.  12.  Second  moon;  or,  n’ulx.,  going  in  time. 

Modoc  (Gatschet).  1.  txo'powatka,  thumb.  2.  spe'luishtka,  index  finger. 

3.  ta'txolam,  middle  finger.  4.  ga'ptselam,  ring  finger.  5.  ga'ptsatka,  little 
finger.  6.  txo'powatka,  thumb.  7.  spe'luishtka,  index  finger.  *8.  txo'powatka. 
thumb.  9.  spe'luishtka,  index  finger.  10.  ta'txelam,  middle  finger.  11.  ga'ptselam. 
ring  finger.  12.  ga'ptsatka,  little  finger. 

Yurok  (Kroeber).  *1.  kohtsewets,  first  (this  month  occurs  about  Christmas) 
2.  na'aiwets,  second.  3.  nahkshewets,  third.  4.  fourth.  5.  fifth.  6.  sixth. 

7.  seventh.  8.  knewoleteu,  eighth.  9.  pia’  ago  (pia  means  red  berries;  pia’ 
ago  was  given  by  four  informants) ; also,  kererwerk  (given  by  three  inform- 
ants). 10.  wetlowa,  tenth  (given  by  three  informants);  also,  le’lo’o,  the 
Karok  “new  year’s”  ceremony  (given  by  one  informant).  11.  nohksho, 
nohsho’,  nosho,  beginning  to  camp  out  to  gather  acorns(f),  (given  by  three 
informants);  also,  hohkemo’  (given  by  one  informant).  12.  hohkemo,  acorns 
fall  (given  by  two  informants);  also,  ka’amohsher  (given  by  one  informant); 
also,  ka’amo  (given  by  one  informant).  13.  ka’amo,  bad  cold  (given  by  two 
informants). 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


155 


DESCRIPTIVE  TYPE 

The  following  tribes  use  the  descriptive  type  of  calendar : Arikara, 
Bannock,  Beothuk,  Blackfoot,  Carrier,  Choctaw,  Cree  (Eastern  and 
Plains),  Dakota  (including  Teton,  Sisseton,  Eastern),  Delaware,  Dog 
Ribs,  Haida,  Hare,  Iroquois,  Kansa,  Kiowa,  Lenape,  Loucheux,  Lower 
Yukon  Eskimo  (and  those  south  of  the  Yukon  delta),  Maidu,  Male- 
cite,  Mandan,  Micmac,  Montagnais,  Muskokee,  Nahane,  Natchez, 
Navaho,  Ojibwa,  Omaha,  Onondaga,  Osage,  Oto  and  Iowa,  Pawnee, 
Pima,  Point  Barrow  Eskimo,  Saulteaux,  Sauk  and  Fox,  Seminole, 
Shushwap,  Slavey,  Tahltan,  Tlingit,  Tse’kehne,  Tsilkoh’tin,  Unalit, 
Ute,  Winnebago,  Yuchi. 

Eskimo 

Point  Barron'  Eskimo  (Murdoch).  1.  ida'sugaru,  (the  compound  cannot  be 
analyzed,  but  is  probably  related  to  cold);  or,  sukunyatyia,  little  sun;  or, 
sfikunyasu'garu.  2.  audla'ktovwin,  time  for  starting  out — to  hunt  reindeer. 
3.  suksila'bwi,  time  for  starting  to  come' home.  4.  umi'surbwin,  time  for  mak- 
ing ready  the  boats.  5.  kau'kerbwin,  time  for  fowling.  6.  yogniabwin,  time 

for  bringing  forth — laying  eggs.  7.  . 8.  — . 9.  . 

*10.  su'dlivwiii,  time  for  working,  sewing.  11.  su'dlivwin  aipa,  second  time  for 
sewing;  or,  su'dlivwin  kiiiu'lia,  succeeding  sewing  time.  12.  kaibwid-wi,  time 
for  dancing. 

Murdoch  was  told  that  for  the  summer  months  “there  was  no  moon  only 
the  sun.  ’ ’ Compare  Simpson 's  account  of  the  Point  Barrow  Eskimo. 

Point  Barrow  Eskimo  (Simpson).  1.  au-lak'-to-win,  departing — to  hunt 
reindeer.  2.  ir'-ra  shu'-ga-run  sha-ke-nat'-si-a,  great  cold  (and)  new  sun. 
3.  e-sek-si-la',  wing.  4.  kat-tet-a'-wak,  returning  (from  the  hunting  ground) 
for  whale.  5.  ka-wait-piv'-i-en,  birds  arrive.  6.  ka-wai-a-niv'-i-en,  birds 
hatched.  7.  ka-wai'-lan  pa-yan-ra'-wi-en,  (young)  birds  fledged.  8.  a-mi-rak'-si-win. 
9.  it-ko-wak'-to-win.  *10.  shud'-le-wing,  sewing.  11.  shud'-le-wing  ai-pa,  sew- 
ing. 12.  kai-wig'-win,  rejoicing. 

Unalit  (Nelson).  1.  wi'-wik,  to  turn  about.  2.  nai-Ikh'-chik,  the  time  first 
seals  are  born.  3.  ti-gig’i-lukh'-ehik,  time  of  creeping  on  game.  4.  klp- 
nukh'-chik,  time  of  cutting  off  (from  the  appearance  of  sharp  lines  where  the 
white  of  the  ptarmigans’  bodies  is  contrasted  with  the  brown  of  the  new 
summer  neck  feathers).  5.  kai’-akh-tug'-o-wik,  time  for  going  in  kaiaks. 
6.  no-akh'-chug-u-wik,  time  of  fawn  hunting.  7.  kon-In'-ni-g’e'-nut  in-ij'-u-vi-ut, 
time  of  geese  getting  new  wing  feathers.  8.  kuj'-u-gut  in-ij'-u-vi-ut,  time  for 
brooding  geese  to  moult.  9.  am-i-ghai'-ghu-wik,  time  for  velvet  shedding.  10. 
ku'-bvl-jukh-piig'-u-wik,  time  for  seal  nets.  11.  uk'-whu'-tug'-u-wik,  time  for 
bringing  in  winter  stores.  12.  cliau'-i-ug'-u-wlk,  time  for  the  drum. 

Eskimo,  Lower  Yukon,  near  Mission  (Nelson).  1.  u-i'-wuk,  season  for  top 
spinning.  2.  a-ki-luh'  st-a'-gu-wik,  time  of  offal  eating;  or,  i-gi'a-luh'-lukh, 
cold  moon.  3.  kup-nukh-chuk,  time  of  opening  upper  passage  ways  into  the 
houses  (said  to  be  an  old  term,  when  it  was  much  warmer  than  now,  and  when 
the  sun  began  to  melt  the  snow  a month  earlier  than  at  present).  4. 
tin'-u-mi-akh'-lhu-ug'-u-wik,  birds  come.  5.  tin'-u-mi-ag'-u-wik,  geese  come.  6. 
man-it'-an-u'-tit,  time  of  eggs.  7.  nuk'-sug'-o-wik,  time  of  salmon.  8.  u-ko'-go- 


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University  of  California  Publications  in  Am.  Arch,  and  Etkn.  [Vol.  16 


li-sog-fl-wlk,  time  for  red  salmon;  or,  tin'-u-mi-at'  in-u'-tit,  water  fowl  moult. 

9.  tln'-u-mi-at  tiii'-u'-vi-at,  time  for  young  geese  to  fly.  10.  am-i-gai'-gu-wik, 
time  for  shedding  velvet  from  reindeer  horns.  11.  chup'-whik,  mush  ice  forms. 
12.  ka'-gi-tagh'-u -wik,  time  of  muskrats.  13.  chai-figh'fi-wlk,  time  of  the  feast. 

Eskimo,  south  of  the  Yukon  delta  (Nelson).  1.  wi'-wik,  named  from  a 
certain  game  of  the  top.  2.  a-gah-lukh'-luk,  time  of  much  moon,  that  is  long 
nights.  3.  unogh-o-wik,  time  of  taking  of  hares  in  nets.  4.  kup-n&kh'-chuk, 
time  of  opening  of  summer  doors.  5.  tin-mi-agh'-u-wik,  arrival  of  geese. 
6.  chi-sugh'-u-wik,  time  of  white  fish.  7.  tiig-i-yuk'-pOkka-gu'-ti,  time  of  braining 
salmon.  8.  tin-u-mi-utm-u'-ti,  geese  moult.  9.  ku'-gl-yutin-u'-ti,  swans  moult. 

10.  tin-u'-ti,  the  flying  away.  11.  am'-I-gha'-ghun,  time  of  velvet  shedding. 
12.  name  was  not  obtained. 


Northwest  Coast 

Tlingit  (Petitot).  1.  . 2.  . *3.  avufini-vik,  time  when 

the  sun  is  weak.  3.  amapolik-epvik,  time  of  the  yellow-hammer  of  the  snow. 
5.  (first  part)  kpiblalep-vik,  time  of  the  break  up  of  the  ice;  (second  part) 
tigmiyepvik,  time  of  the  geese.  6.  neuptop-vik,  time  of  the  long  days.  7. 
kpiblalepvik,  time  of  the  porpoise.  8.  itgaoyat,  the  moulting.  9.  . 

10.  tcjikolcepapk,  formation  of  the  ice.  11.  tchipkpe' n ’epe'-lapk,  the  sun 
disappears.  12.  kpayviyivik,  time  of  the  houses. 

Tlingit,  Wrangell  informant  (Swanton).  *1.  tla'wAq  di'si,  goose  month.  2. 
s!ik  di'si,  black  bear  month.  3.  gAt  di'si,  silver  salmon  month.  4.  AtgA  daxet 
yi'na  di'si,  month  before  everything  hatches.  5.  AtgA  daxet  di'si,  month  every- 
thing hatches.  6.  caxeye',  meaning  unknown.  7.  At  gat&  di'si,  month  when 
the  geese  can ’t  fly.  8.  qoqA  ha'  dis,  month  when  all  kinds  of  animals  prepare 
their  dens.  9.  dis  ya'di,  moon  child  or  young  moon.  10.  dis  Len,  big  moon. 

11.  At  qown'  disi,  month  when  all  creatures  go  into  their  dens;  or,  ce'nax  dis, 
said  to  mean  the  same.  12.  sAx-la  di'si,  ground  hog  mother’s  moon. 

Haida  (Harrison).  1.  tan  kungas,  bear  month.  2.  lthkittun  kungas,  goose 
month.  3.  yhitkaas  kunkas,  laughing  goose  month.  4.  whitgaas,  foreign  goose 
month.  5.  tahelle  kungas,  time  that  flowers  blossom.  6.  hanskaila  kungas, 
berries  begin  to  ripen  this  month.  7.  hanalung  kungas,  berries  are  quite  ripe 
this  month.  8.  chin  kungas,  salmon  month.  9.  kishalsh  kungas,  dog  salmon 
month.  10.  kalk  kungas,  ice  moon.  11.  chae  kungas,  bears  begin  to  burrow 
in  the  ground  this  month.  12.  kwiouge  kungas,  very  cold  month;  or, 
gwougiangiis  kungas,  the  weather  is  too  cold  to  sit  down  to  relieve  themselves. 

Mackenzie  and  Northern  Plateau 

Tahltan  (Emmons).  1.  sartses  lar,  bad  month,  referring  to  the  weather; 
also  middle  month.  2.  denotenna,  little  crust  comes  on  the  snow.  3.  iht  si  sa, 
wind  month.  4.  khlee  ten  narsa,  the  dog  runs  over  the  crust  of  the  snow. 
5.  ih  azee  e sa,  running  month.  6.  a ya  ze  sa,  young  (born)  month.  7. 
a chi  zee  sa,  moulting  (birds)  month.  8.  da  deah  e sa,  ground  hog  gets  white 
hair;  animals  fatten.  9.  hostalh  e sa,  ground  hog  in  prime  condition;  the 
animals  fatten.  *10.  men  ten  tchet  ly,  little  cold.  11.  men  ten  tche,  big  cold. 

12.  ghar  uwue  sa,  rabbits  eat  quickly  (this  is  a reference  to  the  short  days). 
Carrier  (Morice).  1.  sa-tco,  big  moon.  2.  tcoz-sol,  the  root  of  this  word 

is  now  meaningless,  “sol”  means  small.  3.  tcoz-tco,  the  root  of  this  word  is 
now  meaningless,  “tco”  means  large.  4.  cin-uza,  moon  of  the  spring. 
5.  tokus-uza,  moon  of  the  carp.  6.  tanr-uza,  moon  of  the  summer.  7.  ke'sol-uza, 


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157 


moon  of  the  land  locked  salmon.  8.  thallo-za,  moon  of  the  red  salmon. 
9.  pit-uza,  moon  of  the  bull  trout.  10.  Toh-uza,  moon  of  the  white  fish. 
11.  panren  not’sakei,  during  its  half  one  navigates.  12.  sa-tco-din-ai,  next  to 
the  big  moon. 

Tse’ke'hne  (Morice).  1.  int’sih-sa,  moon  of  the  wind.  2.  yastose-sa,  moon 
of  the  snow  storm.  3.  ahta-inza,  moon  of  the  golden  eagle.  4.  patqe-inza, 
moon  of  the  wild  goose.  5.  sas-inza,  moon  of  the  black  bear.  6.  meneh-tce'- 
the-ole,  moon  when  they  take  to  the  water.  7.  he’ke-ta,  the  buffalo  ruts. 
8.  Etsiz-inza,  moulting  moon.  9.  sa-tsetle,  little  moon.  10.  sa-tci,  great  moon. 
11.  E’ka-i,  the  fat  (of  animals)  disappears.  12.  mo-tho'nthon-tsetle,  what 
freezes  is  covered  with  bare  ice. 

Tsilkoh’tin  (Morice).  1.  . 2.  . 3.  , moon  when 

one  comes  out  of  the  subterranean  huts.  4.  , moon  of  the  sucker. 

5.  . 6.  . 7.  , moon  of  the  Kes  or  white  fleshed 

salmon.  8. , moon  of  the  red  fleshed  salnlon.  9. . 10. . 

11.  , moon  all  enter  the  subterranean  huts.  12.  , moon  of  ice. 

Morice  gives  only  the  main  peculiarities  of  the  Tsilkoh’tin  calendar.  He 

has  placed  this  partial  list  of  the  Tsilkoh’tin  month  names  immediately  after 
the  Carrier  and  the  Tse’kehne  calendars,  thereby  implying  a similarity  between 
the  Tsilkoh’tin,  Carrier  and  Tse’kehne. 

Nah-ane  (Morice).  1.  sa-t ’se'slhie,'  month  of  the  middle  (of  the  year). 

2.  toenon-thene,  the  snow  is  a little  frozen  over.  3.  iht  ’si-sa,  month  of  the  wind. 
4.  tlhi-poenetse'-e,  moon,  which  the  dog  uses  for  barking.  5.  ih.aze-sa,  month 
in  which  all  the  animals  leave  their  winter  retreats.  6.  oeyaz-e-sa,  month  of 
the  little  ones.  7.  cetcitc-e-sa,  month  in  which  they  moult.  8.  ti’ka-e-sa,  month 
in  which  they  fatten.  9.  hosthelh-e-sa,  month  of  the  female  marmot.  10. 
mcen-then-tsetle,  month  of  small  ice.  11.  moen-then-tco,  month  of  big  ice. 

12.  koerh-urwoesse,  month  in  which  the  rabbit  gnaws. 

Hare  (Petitot).  1.  tl’in  tche-tewS,  the  tail  of  the  dog  lengthens  out  to  the 
fire.  2.  nin  ttsi-ratcho,  great  wind.  *3.  b4men-  tl’in-  nat ’ie,  moon  the  dog  suffers; 
or,  llin.  yat’iw,  moon  the  dog  yaps;  or,  ara-tchon."ay,  the  moon  turns  on  its  bed. 
4.  nafwin--nate,  snow  blindness  reigns.  5.  nafwin.-enllu,  month  snow  blindness 
is  contracted;  or,  bemen-  t’&-goxin-,  month  of  thaw.  6.  ep’ie  gun-sa,  moon  of 
eggs.  7.  ettchiw  gunsa,  moon  of  moulting.  8.  b6dzi-tcho  de-in"a  gun-s-a  large 
reindeer  return  from  the  sea.  9.  l'uge  gunsa,  moon  of  fish.  10.  4tsen-gun-sa, 
moon  in  which  food  spoils.  11.  tap^-tten-  de"a  gunsa,  moon  the  reindeer  go  up 
into  the  wooded  plateaus.  12.  t'6-en-"a  gun  sa,  reindeer  arrive  upon  the  lakes 
of  the  interior. 

Loucheux  (Petitot).  1.  vce-nan  l'6n-  tchilchpo,  moon  when  dog  is  cold.  2. 
t'adha-s-  ie,  moon  of  ice.  3.  chie-z§tche  s-i6,  moon  of  eagles.  4.  vcenan  1’en  yitchi, 
moon  in  which  dog  barks.  5.  vcenan  ll'u-tidjifi,  moon  of  the  break  up  of  ice; 
or,  vcenan  atopwo,  moon  of  the  sea.  6.  vcenan  yedetcheadh,  moon  of  moulting. 
7.  vcenan  nan-ene"-itchite"ey,  moon  of  the  long  day  (day  continued).  8.  vce- 
nanti-itchill,  moon  of  the  rutting  of  reindeer.  9.  vcenan  nill'utiya,  moon  of  the 
chase.  10.  nikuticha  s-i6,  moon  of  warmth.  11.  tcevis-i6,  moon  of  the  mountain 
goats.  12.  vcenan  s-ie-nakudhoet,  moon  in  which  the  sun  is  dead. 

Dogribs  (Russell).  1.  e't-se  sa,  cold  sun.  2.  nlt-se  sa,  small  wind  sun. 

3.  nit-se-cha  sa,  big  wind  sun.  4.  win-di-thi-che-ko  sa,  the  dogs  travel  with 
tails  up  sun.  5.  ne-wik-un  sa,  sore  eyes  sun.  6.  wen-a-ki  sa,  egg  sun.  7. 
wen-a-chy-ko11  sa,  the  wing  feathers  are  moulted  sun.  8.  wen-at  sa,  the  caribou 
enter  the  woods  sun ; also,  wen-di-e-in-e-ti  sa,  the  berries  are  ripe  sun.  9. 
wen-a-cha  sa,  the  caribou  are  abundant  in  the  woods  sun.  10  ek-ola-chln-co  sa, 


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paddle  shoulder  sun  (this  name  alludes  to  the  practice  of  striking  a scapula 
against  trees  in  luring  moose  at  this  season).  11  wen-de-to”  sa,  the  ice  sets 

fast  sun.  12. . [‘  ‘ Sun  ’ ’ obviously  stands  for  ‘ ‘ moon  ’ ’ in  this  list  and 

the  next.] 

Slavey  (Russell).  1.  e-toz-in-e-cho-ke  sa,  new  year’s  sun.  2.  ni-tsya  sa, 
small  wind  sun.  3.  te-to”  slio  sa,  eagle  sun.  4.  ni-tsva-cho  sa,  big  wind  sun. 
5.  be-ken-ot-o-to-ni-no“-ta  sa,  the  geese  arrive  sun.  6.  chi-me-ab-e-ya  sa,  the 
ducks  are  laying  sun.  7.  be-ke-chi-e-ya-ten-ne-ti  sa,  the  berries  ripen  sun. 

8.  colo°-ye-ken-ak-e-ne-i-a  sa,  moose  rutting  sun.  9.  . 10.  thlu-I-ka- 

tse-de-ti  sa,  fishery  sun.  11.  . 12.  . 

Shuswaj > (Dawson).  1.  pil-ta-te'-a-kum,  midwinter  month.  2.  pil-tshik'- 
in-tin.  *3.  pis-kapits',  spring.  4.  pls-whi-a-whoom,  grass  month.  5.  pit-la-kat'- 
lai-a-hin,  root  digging  month.  6.  pit-ta-pansk,  strawberry  month.  7.  kal'-kul- 
tum-ah,  berry  month.  8.  pil-tum-hlik,  salmon  month.  9.  pil-ta-kle-lahin', 
month  when  salmon  get  bad.  10.  pil-tloo-alitstln',  month  when  deer  travel. 
11.  pilwhatl-ootlin,  month  when  they  return  from  hunting.  12.  pil-kwootl-a-mine', 
remaining  at  home  month. 


California 

Northwestern  Maidu  (Dixon).  1.  i'nto,  drying  up  (f).  2.  omi  hi'ntsuli,  squint 
eye  rock  (?).  3.  ko'no,  wife.  *4.  wi'nuti  (the  exact  meaning  of  this  term  is 
unknown,  but  it  is  probably  related  to  “u'ti”  which  means  black  oak). 

5.  tern  di'yoko,  said  to  mean  having  fawns.  6.  nem  di'yoko,  big  month. 
7.  ka'ui  tso'n  po'ko,  ground  burning  month.  8.  es'lakum  po'ko,  middle  month. 

9.  ma'tmennin  po'ko,  bread  month.  10.  ba'paboko  (the  meaning  is  unknown). 
11.  bo'lye  (the  exact  meaning  is  unknown,  but  the  word  is  probably  related  to 
“bo”  which  means  trail).  12.  sap  (the  exact  meaning  is  unknown;  the  word 
is  related  either  to  “sa”  meaning  fire,  or  to  “sapoi”  meaning  four). 

Northeastern  Maidu  (Dixon).  1.  tetem  tsampautom  po'ko,  big  tree  freeze 
moon.  2.  kana'ipinom  po'ko,  under  burn  moon  (the  wood  will  burn  only  under- 
neath). 3.  bo'ekmen  po'ko,  trail  breaking  open  moon.  4.  bo'mtetnom  poko, 
sitting  down  along  trail  moon.  5.  konom  po'ko  (the  meaning  is  unknown). 

6.  . 7.  . 8.  kiilo'kbepinem  po'ko  (kulo'kbe  means  an  old 

woman.  Old  women  are  said  to  die  of  the  heat  in  this  month).  *9.  se'meni'm 

po'ko,  seed  moon.  10.  . 11.  . 12.  tern  tsa'mpautom  po'ko, 

little  tree  freeze  moon. 

Northwestern  Maidu  (Kroeber).  1.  yeponi,  ceremonial  initiate  “because  there 
is  sickness”;  or,  bompene,  two  paths.  2.  kakakano,  pattering  showers.  *3. 
shawi;  or,  sha  kono,  flowers  bloom.  4.  laila,  grass  grows.  5.  konmoko,  seeds, 
fish  and  geese  are  caught.  6.  nengkaukati,  hot.  7.  tumi,  smoky.  8.  temsimi, 
acorns  begin  to  ripen.  9.  kummenim  shemmeni,  winter  acorns  are  gathered. 

10.  shawodo,  black  acorns  are  cached.  11.  vapakto,  divided  (the  winter  is  half 
gone).  12.  omhinchuli,  ice  lasts  throughout  the  day. 


Southwest 

Navaho  (Franciscan  Fathers).  1.  yas  n'lt’es,  probably  melting  of  snow. 
2.  atsa'  biya'zh,  eaglets.  3.  wozheh  ’I'd,  the  meaning  is  obscure.  4.  dach  ’i'l, 
short  corn;  or,  t’chil,  tiny  leaves;  or,  t’ach’il,  small  feathers  of  eagles. 

5.  datso,  tall  corn;  or,  tatso,  large  leaves;  or,  t’a'tso,  large  feathers  of  eagles. 

6.  ya ’ishjashch ’ili,  I insert  the  small  grains.  7.  naeeshja’stso,  the  big  sugar- 
cane. 8.  binint’a'tso'si,  light  ripening.  9.  binint’a'tso,  the  great  ripe  or  harvest. 


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Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


159 


*10.  ghaji,  back  to  back  (when  the  white  of  winter  and  the  yellow  of  summer 
meet,  turning  their  backs  to  each  other,  the  one  to  proceed,  the  other  to 
retrace  the  steps).  11.  nlts’i’ts’o'si,  light  or  slender  wind.  12  nlts’i’tso',  much 
or  big  wind. 

Pima  (Russell.  Informant,  Ka'mal  tkak).  1.  aufpa  hiasik,  cottonwood 
flowers.  2.  aufpa  i-ivakitak,  cottonwood  leaves.  3.  koi  i-ivakitak,  mesquite 
leaves.  4.  koi  hiasik,  mesquite  flowers.  5.  kai  tcokolik,  black  seeds  on  the 
saguaros.  *6.  harsany  paihitak  marsat,  saguaro  harvest  moon.  7.  tcokiapik, 
rainy.  8.  rsopol  usapik,  short  planting.  9.  varsa  kakatak,  dry  grass.  10. 
huhokiapk’,  winter  begins.  11.  oam,  yellow.  12.  ka-amak,  leaves  falling. 

Pima  (Russell.  Informant,  Antonio  Azul).  1.  ku-uteo  s’hupitcik,  big  winter. 
2.  kamaki,  gray.  3.  tcu-utaki,  green.  4.  oam,  yellow.  5.  ka-ak,  strong.  6. 
*6.  peTkany  paihitak  marsat,  wheat  harvest  moon.  7.  harsany  paihitak,  saguaro 
harvest.  8.  tcokiapik,  rainy.  9.  rsopol  usapik,  short  planting.  10.  varsa 
kakatak,  dry  grass.  11.  vi-ihainyik,  windy.  12.  ovalik,  smell. 


Plains  and  Southern  Plateau 

Ankara  (Maximilian).  1.  Moon  of  the  seven  cold  nights.  2.  Moon  which 
kills  or  carries  off  men.  3.  Moon  in  which  wild  geese  return.  4.  Moon  of 

vegetation.  5. . 6.  . 7.' . 8.  . 9.  -. 

*10.  Moon  in  which  leaves  fall.  11.  Moon  of  the  nose  of  the  little  serpent. 
12.  Moon  of  the  nose  of  the  great  serpent.  The  summer  months  of  the  Arikara 
have  no  names. 

Mandan  (Maximilian).  1.  Moon  of  the  seven  cold  days.  2.  Pairing  moon. 
3.  Moon  of  the  weak  eyes.  4.  Moon  of  the  wild  geese;  or,  moon  of  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  ice.  5.  Moon  in  which  maize  is  sown;  or,  moon  of  flowers. 
6.  Moon  of  ripe  service  berries.  7.  Moon  of  ripe  cherries.  8.  Moon  of  ripe 
plums.  9.  Moon  of  ripe  maize.  10.  Moon  of  the  falling  leaves.  11.  Moon 
in  which  the  rivers  freeze.  12.  Moon  of  the  slight  frost. 

Matthews  (70—72),  judging  from  his  own  observations,  thinks  that  the 
Mandan  and  the  Minitaree  have  no  “formal  names  for  the  lunar  periods, 
although  they  often  connect  the  moons  with  the  natural  phenomena;  and  that 
they  are  aware  that  twelve  lunations  do  not  complete  the  year.” 

Mandan  (Will  and  Spinden).  1.  Moon  of  the  seven  cold  days.  2.  Moon  of 
the  rut  of  the  wolves.  3.  Moon  of  the  sore  eyes.  4.  Moon  of  game;  or,  moon 

of  the  river  break  up.  5.  Moon  of  sowing;  or,  moon  of  flowers.  6.  Moon 

of  ripe  June  berries.  7.  Moon  of  ripe  choke  cherries.  8.  Moon  of  ripe  wild 

plums.  9.  Moon  of ’ripe  corn.  10.  Moon  of  the  fall  of  the  leaves.  11.  Moon 

of  the  freezing  of  the  rivers.  12.  Moon  of  the  little  cold. 

Dakota  (Keating).  1.  we  tahre,  hard  moon.  2.  wechata  we,  raccoon  moon. 
3.  wishta  wasa  we,  sore  eyes  moon.  4.  mahahahandi  we,  hunting  moon. 
5.  mahahakanda  we,  oviparous  game  moon.  6.  wajustechasha  we,  strawberries 
moon.  7.  tschanpasha,  cherries  moon.  8.  tatanka  kehowa  we,  moon  of  the 
rutting  of  the  buffalo.  *9.  wajopi  we,  moon  of  the  commencement  of  the  wild 
rice.  10.  siushtaupi  we,  the  end  of  the  wild  rice.  11.  takehuhu  we,  the  rutting 
of  the  deer  moon.  12.  tahechapshon  we,  deer  shedding  its  horns  moon. 

Dakota  (Hayden).  1.  pte-idu-la-wash-te-yu-ta-wik,  time  when  young  buffalo, 
in  utero,  are  good  to  eat.  2.  shunk-a-ma'-ni-tu-ga-nash'-ki-wik,  when  the  wolves 
go  mad.  *3.  ma-ga-ga'-li-wik,  moon  geese  come  up  from  the  south.  4.  pe-zi'- 
to-i-wam-pi-wik,  when  the  grass  springs  up.  5.  shunk-a-ma-ni-tu-ein-ea-ton-wik, 
when  the  wolves  have  their  young.  6.  pte-ki-u'-ha-wik,  rutting  time  of  buffalo. 


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7.  cam'-pa-sha-wik,  when  the  cherries  are  red.  8.  cam'-pa-sa-pa-wik,  black 
cherry  month,  when  the  cherries  are  red.  9.  6ai;-wak'-pe-hi'-wik,  when  the 
leaves  become  yellow.  10.  eaij-wak-pe-inh-pa,  when  the  leaves  fall.  11.  wik-to- 
ka-i-ca'-mi-na,  when  the  first  snow  falls.  12.  pte-yu'-kta-ha-shi'-na-wash'-te, 
when  the  robes  are  good. 

Dakota  (Schoolcraft).  1.  Severe  or  hard  moon.  2.  Moon  in  which  racoons 
run.  3.  Moon  of  the  sore  eyes.  4.  Moon  in  which  the  geese  lay  eggs.  5.  Moon 
for  planting.  6.  Moon  for  strawberries  and  for  hoeing  corn.  7.  Midsummer 
moon.  10.  Moon  in  which  corn  is  gathered.  9.  Moon  in  which  they  make  wild 
rice.  10.  Moon  of  the  running  of  the  does.  11.  Moon  of  the  running  of  the 
does  (this  month  has  the  same  name  as  the  preceding  one).  12.  Moon  in 
which  the  deer  shed  their  horns. 

Dakota  (Gordon).  1.  wee-te-rhee,  the  hard  moon,  that  is  the  cold  moon. 

2.  — , coon  moon.  3. , moon  of  the  sore  eyes.  4.  maga-oka-da-wee, 

moon  in  which  geese  lay  eggs;  or,  wokada-wee,  egg  moon;  or,  wato'papee-wee, 

canoe  moon.  5.  wo'-zu-pee-wee,  planting  moon.  6.  , strawberries 

moon.  7.  * , moon  in  which  the  geese  shed  their  feathers;  or,  chang-pa- 

sapa-wee,  choke  cherry  moon;  or,  mna-rcha-rcha-wee,  red  lily  moon.  8.  wasu'- 
ton-wee,  ripe  moon.  9.  psin-na-ke'-tu-wee,  ripe  rice  moon.  10.  wa-zu'-pee-wee, 
or,  wee-wa-zu-pee,  moon  in  which  wild  rice  is  gathered  and  stored  for  winter 
use.  11.  ta-kee-yu-hra-wee,  deer  rutting  moon.  12.  ta-he'-cha-psing-wee,  moon 
in  which  deer  shed  their  horns. 

Dakota  (Neill).  1.  wi-teri,  hard  moon.  2.  wicata-wi,  raccoon  moon.  3. 
istawicayazan-wi,  sore  eyes  moon.  4.  magaokadi-wi,  moon  in  which  the  geese 
lay  eggs;  or,  wokada-we,  or,  watopapi-wi,  moon  in  which  the  streams  are  again 
navigable.  5.  wojupi-wi,  planting  moon.  6.  wajustecasa-wi,  moon  in  which 
the  strawberries  are  red.  7.  canpasapa-vvi  and  wasunpa-wi,  moon  in  which 
the  choke  cherries  are  ripe  and  the  geese  shed  their  feathers.  8.  wasuton-wi, 
harvest  moon.  9.  psinhnaketu-wi,  moon  in  which  the  wild  rice  is  laid  up 
to  dry.  10.  wi-wajupi,  or,  wazupi-wi,  drying  rice  moon.  11.  takiyura-wi,  deer 
rutting  moon.  12.  tahecapsun-wi,  moon  in  which  the  deer  shed  their  horns. 

Dakota  (Rigg3).  1.  wi-tehi,  hard  moon.  2.  wieata-we,  raccoon  moon. 

3.  is'tawicay-azan-we,  sore  eyes  moon.  4.  magaokada-wi,  moon  in  which  geese 
lay  eggs;  or,  wokada-wi,  and,  watopapi-wi,  moon  streams  again  become  navi- 
gable. 5.  wozupi-wi,  planting  moon.  6.  wazus'tefias'a-wi,  moon  strawberries  are 
ripe.  7.  caTjpasapa-wi,  and  wasmjpa-wi,  moon  choke  berries  are  ripe  and  geese 
shed  feathers.  8.  wasuto^-wi,  harvest  moon.  9.  psiijhnaketu-wi,  moon  rice  is 
laid  up  to  dry.  10.  wi-wa2upi,  drying  rice  moon.  11.  takiyuha-wi,  deer  rut- 
ting moon.  12.  tahecaps'unwi,  moon  when  deer  shed  horns. 

Dakota  (Beltrami).  1.  onwikari-oui,  moon  of  valor.  2.  owieiata-oui,  moon 
of  the  wild  oats.  *3.  wistaocia-oui,  moon  of  the  bad  eyes.  4.  mograhoandi-oui, 
moon  of  game.  5.  mograhoeand&-oui,  moon  of  the  nests.  6.  mojusticiascia-oul, 
moon  of  strawberries.  7.  champaseisl-oiu,  moon  of  the  cherries.  8.  yanlankakiocvl- 
oui,  moon  of  the  buffaloes.  9.  wasipi-oul,  moon  of  the  oats.  10.  sciwostapl-oui, 
second  moon  of  oats.  11.  takiouka-oul,  moon  of  the  roebuck.  12.  abesciatakski- 
oui,  budding  of  the  roebuck’s  horns. 

Teton  Dakota  (Clark).  1.  Moon  in  which  the  skin  of  the  foetus  of  the 
buffalo  is  beginning  to  color.  2.  Moon  in  which  the  hair  gets  thick  on  the 
foetus  of  the  buffalo;  or,  man’s  or  hard  moon.  3.  Sore  eyes  moon.  4.  Moon 
in  which  the  ducks  come.  5.  Moon  in  which  the  grass  begins  to  get  green 
and  some  roots  are  fit  to  be  eaten.  6.  Moon  in  which  corn  is  planted.  7.  Moon 
in  which  buffalo  bulls  are  fat.  8.  Moon  in  which  buffalo  cows  are  in  season. 


1919] 


Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


161 


9.  Moon  in  which  plums  get  red.  *10.  Moon  in  which  the  leaves  fall  off. 
11.  Moon  in  which  the  buffalo  cow’s  foetus  is  getting  large.  12.  Moon  in  which 
the  wolves  run  together. 

Sisseton  and  Eastern  Dakota  (Clark).  1. . 2.  Moon  in  which  the 

raccoons  come  out.  3.  Sore  eyes  moon.  4.  Moon  in  which  the  geese  lay  eggs. 

5.  Planting  moon.  6.  Moon  in  which  the  strawberries  ripen.  7.  . 

8.  Harvest  moon.  9.  Moon  in  which  the  wild  rice  becomes  ripe.  10.  . 

11.  Deer  rutting  moon.  12.  Moon  in  which  the  deer  shed  their  horns. 

Omaha  (Fletcher  and  La  Flesche).  1.  Ho"'ga  umubthi  ike,  moon  in 
which  the  snow  drifts  into  the  tents  of  the  Ho"ga.  2.  mi'xa  agthi  ike, 
moon  in  which  the  geese  come  home.  3.  pe'nishka  mieta  ike,  little  frog  moon. 
4.  miu'o°thing  ike,  moon  in  which  nothing  happens.  5.  miwaa'  ike,  moon  in 
which  they  plant.  6.  tenu'gamigauna  ike,  moon  in  which  the  buffalo  bulls 
hunt  the  cows.  7.  tehu'ta"  ike,  moon  in  which  the  buffalo  bellow.  8.  un'ponhutan 
ike,  moon  in  which  the  elk  bellow.  9.  ta'xte  ma"nonxa  ike,  moon  in  which  the 
deer  paw  the  earth.  10.  ta'xti  kithixa  ike,  moon  in  which  the  deer  rut.  11. 
taxte  hebaxo"'  ike,  moon  in  which  the  deer  shed  their  antlers.  12.  waija'be 
zhi”gai'da  ike,  moon  in  which  the  little  black  bears  are  born. 

Fletcher  and  La  Flesche  say  that  the  same  designations  are  used  by  the  Oto 
and  the  Iowa,  except  for  the  first  month,  which  is  known  as  the  raccoon  moon. 

Pawnee  (Hayden).  1.  ki-wa'k-skuts,  coldest  moon.  2.  . 3.  pa-hu- 

ta'-wi-o,  moon  when  the  grass  begins  to  start.  4.  pu-hu'-wut-u'-rik.  moon 
when  the  coldest  weather  is  breaking  up.  5.  . 6.  . 7.  . 

8.  kat,  the  last  of  summer.  9.  ki-sa'-to,  moon  before  cold  weather  commences. 

10.  nut'k,  snake  moon.  11. . 12.  ki-wa'-ka'k. 

The  Pawnee,  according  to  Hayden,  have  only  six  moons. 

Pawnee  (Dunbar).  1.  ka-at.  2.  p-ra-pa.  3.  pa-hu-tau-i-u.  4.  pa-hu-wut-u- 
ru-kut.  5.  pa-hi-wa-kar-uks.  6.  pa-ra-rar-uks.  7.  pa-rik-ish.  8.  pa-la-re-huts. 

9.  kis-at-u.  10.  lut-a.  11.  ki-wuks-ki.  12.  ki-wuks-kuts. 

According  to  Dunbar  the  Pawnee  have  twelve  and  thirteen  months  alter- 
nately, the  intercalary  month  being  inserted  at  the  end  of  summer. 

Kiowa  (Mooney).  1.  ka'gu'at  p’a  san,  little  bud  moon.  2.  ka'gu'at  p’a, 
bud  moon.  3.  aidefi  p ’a,  leaf  moon.  4.  pai  aga'nti,  summer  aga'nti  moon.  6.  pai 
te'pgan  p ’a,  summer  tepgan  moon.  6.  pai  ganhi'na  p ’a,  summer  ganhina  moon. 
7.  t’a'guno’tal  p’a  san,  little  moon  of  deer  horns  dropping  off.  8.  t’a'guno'tal  p’a 
(edal),  (great),  moon  of  deer  horns  dropping  off;  or,  aidenguak’o  p’a,  yellow 
leaves  moon.  *9.  ga'kinat’o  p’a,  ten  colds  moon.  10.  aga'nti;  or,  ii’ga'ntsanha 
(from  a’ga'ntsan,  meaning  “wait  until  I come’’).  11.  te'pgan  p’a,  geese  going 
moon;  or  bonpa  p’a,  sweat  house  moon.  12.  ganhi'na  p’a,  real  goose  moon. 

The  Kiowa  moons  do  not  correspond  very  closely  with  our  months,  for  the 
first  moon  begins  about  the  middle  of  our  January  and  continues  until  near 
the  middle  of  our  February.  According  to  the  folklore  of  the  Kiowa,  the 
tenth  moon,  “Wait  until  I come,’’  says  to  its  predecessor,  “You  went  but 
did  nothing.  Wait  and  I’ll  go,  and  I’ll  show  you  what  I can  do  in  the  way 
of  storms  and  cold  weather.  ’ ’ A similar  explanation  is  attached  to  the  summer 
aga'nti  moon,  the  fourth  moon  of  this  list. 

Kansa  (Hunter).  1.  Dead  moon.  2.  Thaw  or  rain  moon.  *3.  Hunting,  bird, 
or  singing  moon.  4.  Flower  moon.  5.  Planting  moon.  6.  Salt  moon.  7.  Buffalo 
moon.  8.  Corn  or  plum  moon.  9.  Harvest  moon.  10.  Bear  or  smoky  moon. 

11.  Buck  or  windy  moon.  12.  Freezing  or  snow  moon. 

The  Kansa  count  thirteen  moons  to  the  year;  the  thirteenth,  sugar  moon, 
occurs  at  the  end  of  the  Kansa  year,  corresponding  to  a February-March  period. 


162 


University  of  California  Publications  in  Am.  Arch,  and  Ethn.  [Vol.  16 


Osage  (Maxmilian).  1 and  2.  mi'hka-kirucha,  the  time  when  the  lynx  is 

in  heat.  3 and  4.  oh-ua-gacha,  the  time  of  the  maize.  5 and  6.  . 

*7  and  8.  tschetoga-kirucha,  the  time  when  the  buffalo  is  in  heat.  9,  10,  and  11. 
tah-kirucha,  the  time  when  the  deer  is  in  heat.  12.  tah-habrahka,  time  of  the 
thin  hides. 

Plains  Cree  (Lacombe).  1.  kise-pisim,  the  old  or  big  month.  2.  mikisiwi- 
pisim,  month  of  the  eagle.  3.  niski-pisim,  month  of  the  bustard.  4.  ayekiwi- 
pisim,  month  of  the  frogs.  5.  opineyawewi-pisim,  moon  in  which  the  birds  lay 
eggs.  6.  opaskawehuwi-pisim,  moon  of  the  hatching.  7.  opaskuwi-pisim,  moon 
in  which  the  birds  moult.  8.  oppahuwi-pisim,  moon  in  which  the  birds  fly 
away.  9.  onotjihituwi-pisim,  rutting  moon.  10.  kaskatinowi-pisim,  moon  in 
which  it  freezes.  11.  iyikuwi-pisim,  moon  of  the  frost.  12.  pawatchakinasis, 
moon  in  which  the  snow  hangs  from  the  trees. 

Plains  Cree  (Maximilian).  1.  kesiih-pisimm,  the  big  moon.  2.  paua-zakenassis- 
pisimm,  moon  which  shakes  the  trees.  3.  mekssiuh-pisimm,  moon  in  which  the 
eagle  comes;  or,  niski-pisimm,  moon  of  the  wild  goose;  or,  ayiki-pisimm,  moon 

of  the  frogs.  4. . 5.  opineya-uau-pisimm,  moon  in  which  the  birds 

lay  their  eggs.  6.  opaskoh-pisimm,  moon  in  which  the  birds  shed  their  feathers. 
7.  oochpahoh-pisimm,  moon  in  which  the  birds  fly;  or,  onont-chicheto-pisimm, 

moon  in  which  the  buffalo  is  in  heat.  8.  . 9.  . 10.  opinna- 

skoh-pisimm,  moon  in  which  the  leaves  fall.  *11.  kaskattinoh-pisimm,  ice  moon. 
12.  kaie-iequata'-pisimm. 

Plains  Cree  (Skinner).  1.  otcestiuvicikauu-picim,  kissing  moon.  2.  megiauwi- 
picim,  eagle  moon.  3.  niski-picim,  geese  moon.  4.  aiiki-picim,  frog  moon. 
5.  siigibukau-picim,  leaves  coming  out  moon.  6.  opineauwe'wi-picim,  egg  moon. 

7.  upaskuwi-picim,  moulting  moon.  8.  uskauhu-picim,  rutting  moon.  9.  tukwagi- 
picim,  fall  moon.  10.  kuskutnu-picim,  frost  everything.  11.  pauwatcitcukinasis- 
pieim.  12.  pauwatukinum-picim. 

Plains  Cree  (Hayden).  1.  kis-ki-pa'-pa-ke-te'k-e-num,  coldest  moon.  2. 
ka-ma'k-e-tuh-pe-sim,  ice  thawing  moon.  *3.  is-ke-pe'-sim,  duck  moon.  4. 
a-ik-e-pe'-sim,  frog  moon.  5.  slia-ke-pa'-ka-o-pe-sim,  leaf  moon.  6.  me-ne-sa-ka'- 
tik-tuk-e,  service  berries  ripe.  7.  no'-tse-hi-ko'-pe-sim,  buffalo  rutting  moon. 

8.  wa-ke-pa-ka'n-o-pe-sim,  leaves  changing  moon.  9.  wa-sta-o-pa-ka'-wo-pe-sim, 
leaves  entirely  changed.  10.  pin-pa-ka'n-o-pe-sim,  leaves  off  the  trees.  11. 
na-ma-pi'-ne-kais,  fish  catching  moon.  12.  pa-pa-ke-se'-kin-e-kis,  moon  that 
strikes  the  earth  cold. 

The  Plains  Cree  have  a thirteenth  moon,  me-ke-su'-e-pe-sim,  eagles  seen 
moon,  which  occurs  about  February-March. 

Plains  Cree  (Schoolcraft).  1.  Cold  moon.  2.  Big  moon.  3.  Eagle  moon. 

4.  Goose  moon.  *5.  Frog  Moon.  6.  Moon  in  which  the  birds  begin  to  lay 

eggs.  7.  Moon  in  which  the  birds  moult.  8.  Moon  in  which  the  birds  begin 
to  fly.  9.  Moon  in  which  the  moose  cast  their  horns.  10.  Ratting  moon. 
11.  Hoar  frost  or  ice  moon.  12.  Whirlwind  moon. 

Blackfoot  (Wissler).  1.  Changeable  moon.  2.  Uncertain  moon.  3.  Geese 
moon.  4.  Beginning  of  summer  moon.  5.  Frog  moon.  6.  Thunder  moon. 
7.  Big  Sunday  moon.  8.  Berry  moon.  9.  Choke  cherry  moon.  *10  Beginning 
of  winter  moon.  11.  Wind  moon.  12.  Cold  moon.  13.  Two  big  Sunday  moon. 

Big  Sunday  and  two  big  Sunday  refer  to  the  Fourth  of  July  and  Christmas. 

Blackfoot  (Schoolcraft).  1.  Cold  moon.  2.  Snowy  moon.  *3.  Green  moon. 

4.  Moon  of  planting.  5.  Moon  of  the  flowers.  6.  Hot  moon.  7.  Moon  of  the 

deer.  8.  Sturgeon  moon.  9.  Fruit  moon.  10.  Traveling  moon.  11.  Beaver 
moon.  12.  Hunting  moon. 


1919] 


Cope:  Calendars  of  the  Indians  North  of  Mexico 


Bannock  (Clark).  1.  Black  smoke,  that  is  cold.  2.  Bare  spots  along  trail. 

3.  Little  grass,  or  grass  first  comes  up.  4. . 5.  . 6.  . 

7.  . 8.  . 9.  . 10.  . *11.  Running  season 

for  game.  12.  Big  moon. 

Clark  does  not  correlate  the  Bannock  month  list  with  our  months.  He 
says  that  there  are  no  named  for  the  months  after  the  season  gets  warm. 

Uintah  Ute  (Sapir).  1.  togut'Ornuimagat-ogutc,  middle  winter  moon;  or, 
avat-omum  agat  ogutc,  big  winter  moon.  2.  pinaromum-agat-ogutc,  last  winter 
moon.  3.  tamam-agat-ogutc,  spring  moon.  4.  avat’-intamam.agat-ogutc,  big 
spring  moon.  5.  pinaramam  agat-ogutc,  last  spring  moon.  *6.  tateannagat-ogutc, 
summer  moon.  7.  togut-atcam-agat-ogutc,  middle  summer  moon.  8.  pinaratcam.- 
agat-ogutc,  last  summer  moon.  9.  y'iv'vanam.agat'Ogute,  fall  moon.  10. 
togu't-irugwam.agat-ogutc,  middle  fall  moon;  or,  avatVvanamagat.ogutc,  big  fall 
moon.  11.  pineiyi‘vwanam-agat'Ogute,  last  fall  moon.  12.  tomurmagat-ogutc, 
winter  moon. 


Northeastern  Woodland 

Micmac  (Rand).  1.  boonamooeegoos.  2.  abugunajit  (perhaps  the  snow 
blinder).  3.  segowgoo's.  4.  punadiimooegoo's.  5.  agesegoos'.  6.  nibunegoos'. 
7.  pskooegoos'.  8.  lcesagawegoos'.  9.  majowhtoogweegoos'.  10.  wegowegoos'. 

11.  skools.  12.  likchegoos',  the  great  or  most  excellent  month  because  of 
Christmas. 

Micmac  (Mechling).  1.  bunAdAmigii's.  2.  abigina'djit.  3.  sigowigu's.  4. 
pinadimwigu's.  5.  agzl'g'us.  6.  nibinigu's.  7.  apsgwigii's.  8.  kisaywigii's. 
9.  madjo'yatwigu's.  10.  wige'wig'us.  11.  skills.  12.  ’’"’djuyuldjiwigus. 

Beothuk  (Gatschet).  1.  kobshuneesarnut.  2.  kosthabono'ng  bewajowit. 
3.  manamiss.  4.  wasumaweeseek.  5.  bedejamish  bewajowite.  6.  wasuinaweeseek. 
7.  kowayaseek.  8.  wadawhegh.  9.  wasumaweeseek.  10.  godabonyegh.  11. 
godabonyeesh.  12.  odasweeteeshamut. 

Gatschet  says  that  it  seems  doubtful  to  him  that  April,  June,  and  September 
were  all  called  by  the  same  name. 

Malccite  (Mechling).  1.  piadiwiswigl'zus,  probably  the  month  when  the 
branches  of  the  pine  and  fir  trees  break  off  with  the  cold.  2.  tigwa'stunigi'zus, 
month  in  which  it  is  getting  towards  spring.  3.  agluzunwe'sit,  the  month  in 
which  things  are  scarce.  4.  panadamuwigi'zus,  month  in  which  birds  begin  to 
fly.  5.  sigunamigwigl'zus,  month  when  fish  come  up.  6.  skawswewigi'zus, 
month  in  which  everything  is  in  bloom.  7.  teuwaxpigi'zus,  month  in  which 
the  frogs  are  in  the  water.  8.  wike'wigi'zus,  month  in  which  everything  is 
ripe.  9.  madjewidolkgigi'zus,  month  in  which  the  animals  begin  to  rut.  10. 
tagwa'gigi'zus,  the  height  of  autumn.  11.  giwa'djigi'zus,  it  is  a lonesome  month. 

12.  ktigi'zus  (the  latter  part  of  November  and  the  first  part  of  December). 

13.  midjigl'zus,  bad  month. 

Malecite  (Mechling,  from  Vetromile).  1.  onglusamwessit,  it  is  hard  to  get 
a living.  2.  taquask  nikizoos,  month  in  which  there  is  a crust  on  the  snow. 
3.  pnhodamwikizoos,  month  in  which  we  catch  fish.  4.  a musswikizoos,  month 
in  which  we  catch  fish.  5.  kikkaikizoos,  month  in  which  we  sow.  6.  muskoskikizoos, 
month  in  which  we  catch  young  seals.  7.  atchittaikizoos,  month  in  which  the 
berries  are  ripe.  8.  wikkaikizoos,  month  in  which  there  is  a heap  of  eels  on 
the  sand.  9.  inantcliewadokkikizoos,  month  in  which  there  are  herds  of  mooses, 
bears,  etc.  10.  assebaskwats,  there  is  ice  on  the  banks.  11.  a bonomhsswikizoos, 
month  in  which  the  first  fish  comes.  12.  ketehikizoos,  the  long  month. 


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University  of  California  Publications  in  Am.  Arch,  and  Ethn.  [Vol.  16 


Eastern  Cree  (Skinner).  1.  gishe'papiwate'kimumpizun,  month  in  which 
the  old  fellow  spreads  the  brush.  2.  ce'pizun,  old  month.  3.  migisupizun, 
eagle  month.  4.  miskipizun,  gray  goose  month.  5.  allgipizun,  frog  month. 
6.  sagipukawipizun,  month  in  which  the  leaves  come  out.  7.  opaskwuwipizun, 
month  in  which  the  ducks  begin  to  moult.  8.  opunhopizun,  month  in  which 
young  ducks  begin  to  fly.  9.  we'we'opizun,  wavy  or  snow  goose  month. 
10.  opinahamowipizun,  month  in  which  the  birds  fly  south.  11.  kaska'tinopizun, 
month  in  which  the  rivers  begin  to  freeze.  12.  papiwatiginashispizun,  month 
in  which  the  young  fellow  spreads  the  brush. 

Explanation  of  the  references  to  “the  old  fellow’’  or  the  “young  fellow 
spreading  the  brush’’:  winter  causes  the  pine  needles  to  fall  on  the  snow, 
forming  a covering  like  pine  boughs  laid  on  the  floor  of  a wigwam  for  bedding; 
the  laying  is  called  “spreading.’’ 

Eastern  Cree  (Harmon).  1.  kush-a-pa-was-ti-ca-num  o pes-im,  extreme  cold 
month.  2.  kee-chay  o pes-im,  month  in  which  the  young  birds  begin  to  chirp; 
or,  kich-ee  o pes-im,  old  month.  3.  me-ke-su  o pes-im,  eagle  month.  4.  nis-ka 
o pes-im,  goose  month.  *5.  i-iche  pesim,  frog  month.  6.  o-piwa-wa  we  pes-im, 
month  in  which  the  birds  begin  to  lay  eggs.  7.  o pus-ko  we  pes-im,  month  in 
which  birds  cast  their  feathers.  8.  o-pa-ko  we  pes-im,  month  in  which  young 
birds  begin  to  fly.  9.  wa-was-kis  o pes-im,  month  in  which  moose  cast  their 
horns;  or,  a-pin-nas-ko  o pes-im,  month  the  leaves  fall  off  the  trees.  10. 
o-no-ehi-kit-o-wa  o pes-im,  the  rutting  month;  or,  o-ke-wa-ow-o  pes-im,  month 
the  fowls  go  south.  11.  av-e-coop-ay  o pe-sim,  hoar  frost  month;  or  kus-kut-te-no 
o pes-im,  ice  month.  12.  pa-watch-e-can-a-nas  o pes-im,  whirlwind  month. 

Harmon  says  there  are  thirteen  months,  but  he  gives  only  twelve  in  his  list. 

Eastern  Cree  (Mackenzie).  1.  kushapawasticanum  o pishim,  extreme  cold 
moon.  2.  kichi  pishim,  big  moon,  or  old  man.  3.  mickysue  pishim,  eagle  moon. 
4.  niskaw  o pishim,  goose  moon.  *5.  atheiky  o pishim,  frog  moon.  6.  oppinu 
o pishim,  moon  in  which  the  birds  begin  to  lay  eggs.  7.  aupasken  o pishim, 
moon  in  which  birds  cast  their  feathers.  8.  aupahou  o pishim,  moon  in  which 
the  young  birds  begin  to  fly.  9.  waskiscon  o pishim,  moon  in  which  the  moose 
deer  cast  their  horns.  10.  wisac  o pishim,  rutting  moon.  11  thithigon  pewai 
p pishim,  hoar  frost  moon;  or,  kuskatinayoui  o pishim,  ice  moon.  12. 
pawatchicananasis  o pishim,  whirlwind  moon. 

Montagnais  (McKenzie).  1.  tshipishime,  the  great  moon.  2.  epiclie'-na-mas-kui 
pishime,  snow  falls  from  the  leaves.  3.  mitisu  pishime,  eagle  moon.  4.  nishique 
pishime,  bustard  moon.  5.  uabikum  pishime,  budding  moon.  6.  ui-sha-ku 
pishime,  rutting  moon.  7.  pinaue'u  pishime,  moulting  moon.  8.  ushe'kau 

pishime,  caribou  horns  cast  their  moss.  9.  uatshe'tshi  pishime,  the  leaf  turns 
yellow.  10.  penatshi  pishime,  the  leaf  falls.  11.  takuatche  pishime,  the  fall 
moon.  12.  t-she'-pa-peu  pishime,  the  hard  or  severe  moon. 

Montagnais  (Petitot).  1.  nilttsi  sa  ts41e,  little  month  of  wind,  or,  men4  kli 
d4dhi  sa,  hard  moon.  2.  nilttsi-sa-tchop,  great  month  of  wind.  *3.  b4ni  l'in- 
th41i,  month  the  dog  sweats,  or,  dettan-ni-tcho  za,  month  of  eagles.  4.  t’en-tssi- 
kk£-na-izale,  ice  hangs  in  needles.  5.  b4ni  etchddhi,  month  of  moulting,  or, 
b4ni-eg'ez4,  month  of  the  sea;  or,  t ’en-ttsi-’tla  na"a,  end  of  the  ice,  or,  ttsal4  sa, 
month  of  frogs.  6.  b4ni-ettch4dhi,  moulting,  or,  enial"az-ts616,  small  departure 
of  reindeer.  7.  enil"az-tch6,  great  departure  of  reindeer,  or,  beni-nal"assi,  month 
of  departure.  8.  k4nu-zae,  month  of  gentle  heat.  9.  b4ni  te  pedhli,  month  of 
rutting,  or,  4gun.teh4n4  sa,  month  of  the  shoulder  blades,  of  reindeer.  10. 
b4ni-tsi"eli,  month  of  the  foetus,  when  the  roe  carries  her  young,  or,  intts4-nae 
sa,  month  of  the  roe  of  the  elk  or  moose  deer.  11.  nni  sa  ots414,  small  month 


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165 


of  cold,  or,  djidsh  in-sa,  month  of  fishing  with  a hook.  12.  nni-sa-tchop,  great 
month  of  cold,  or,  1 ’ue-sa,  month  of  fish. 

Northern  Saulteaux  (Skinner).  1.  djiba'piwutkizis  (djiba  means  morning). 
2.  kje'kizis,  big  moon.  3.  mikisi'ukizis,  eagle  moon.  4.  niki'kizus,  moon  in  which 
the  geese  come,  or  goose  moon.  5.  man'gokizis,  loon  moon.  6.  sagibu'kkaokizis, 
budding  leaf  moon.  7.  woskunitci'kizis,  unripe  berry  moon.  8.  atiktemi'nikizis, 
ripe  berry  moon.  9.  pazikohoikizis,  moon  in  which  the  young  ducks  begin  to 
fly.  10.  pimahamoikizis,  moon  in  which  the  birds  begin  to  fly  south.  11. 
kuskutinikizis,  freezing  moon,  or  lakes  and  rivers  freezing  moon.  12 
pichipiponikizis,  moon  that  winter  begins. 

Ojibtra,  Long  Lake,  Ontario  (Waugh).  1.  ge'nose' , long  moon.  2.  abtabogi'zis, 
half  the  winter  month;  or,  ona'benagi'zts,  can  walk  on  the  crust  of  the  snow 
month.  3.  n'ymab'7nygi'zes,  sucker  month.  4.  “-yki’gi'zis,  goose  month;  or, 
bokw'gymegi'zis,  breaking  snowshoe  month.  5.  .mai7gogi'zts,  loon  month.  6. 
bagt'da'nogi'zis,  lakes  opening  up  month.  7.  a/btga'nogi'zis,  flowers  coming  out 
month.  8.  skandji'gi'zts,  berries  not  yet  ripe  month.  9.  a'bteni'b  nogi'zis,  half 
the  summer  month.  10.  ame’gs7gi'zts,  trout  month.  11.  adtkame'gogi'zts, 
white  fish  month.  12.  ckadyno'gi'zts,  lakes  frozen  up  month.  13.  bldjibibo’'gizts, 
first  part  of  the  winter  month. 

Ojitwa,  from  Nipigon,  Ontario  (Waugh).  *1.  anamkoda'di'z,  the  new  year,  or 
the  beginning  of  the  year.  2.  abta'btbo'm,  half  the  winter.  3.  namebtnigi'zts, 
sucker  moon.  4.  ntki'gi'zis,  geese  moon.  5.  ma'i7gogi'zis,  loon  moon.  6. 
ww'b-ygwa'nigi'zis,  flower  moon.  7.  min7gi'zts,  berry  moon.  8.  abteni'bmogi'zts, 
half  the  summer  month.  9.  namegwtse'sagi'zts,  small  trout  moon.  10. 
kltctname'kw«stgi'zis,  big  trout  month.  11.  addc7me'gogi'zis,  white  fish  moon. 
12.  manido'  gizts,  spirit  moon.  13.  kttcig£'onzi,  long  days  and  nights  moon. 

Ojibwa  (Wilson).  1.  muhnedoo  keezis,  spirit  month.  2.  nuhma'bene  keezis, 
sucker  month.  3.  ona'hbune  keezis,  month  of  the  crust  of  the  snow.  4. 
babooquada'hgiming  keezis,  snow-shoe  breaking  month.  5.  wa'hbegoone  ke'ezis, 
month  of  the  flowers.  6.  oda'emene  keezis,  the  strawberry  month.  7.  misque’emene 
keezis,  the  raspberry  month.  8.  meen  keezis,  the  bilberry  month.  9.  muhno'omene 
keezis,  the  wild  rice  month.  10.  pena'hque  keezis,  month  of  the  falling  leaves. 
11.  kushku'dene  keezis,  the  freezing  month.  12.  mu'hnedoo  keezisoons,  little 
spirit  month. 

Ojibwa  (Baraga).  1.  manito-gisiss,  moon  of  the  spirit.  2.  name'bini-gisiss, 
moon  of  the  suckers.  3.  ona'bani-gisiss,  moon  of  the  crust  on  the  snow.  4. 
bebokwe'dagiming-gisiss,  moon  of  the  breaking  of  snow-shoes.  5.  wnbigon- 
gisiss,  moon  of  the  flowers  and  blooms.  6.  odeimini-gisiss,  moon  of  strawberries. 
7.  miskwimini-gisiss,  moon  of  raspberries.  8.  min-gisiss,  moon  of  whortle 
berries.  9.  manominike-gisiss,  moon  of  the  gathering  of  wild  rice.  10.  binakwi- 
gisiss,  moon  of  the  falling  of  the  leaves.  11.  gashkadino-gisiss,  moon  of  freez- 
ing. 12.  manito-gisissons,  little  moon  of  the  spirit. 

Ojibwa  (Keating). *33  i.  nanabushe  kisis  (the  name  of  a fabulous  char- 

133  Diacritical  characters  have  been  omitted, 
acter).  2.  kacha  kisis,  great  moon;  or  kanosis  kisis,  long  moon.  *3.  mekissawe 
kisis,  eagle  moon;  or,  namapinne  kisis,  carp  moon.  4.  nepenesa  kisis,  summer 
birds;  or,  onapamo  kisis,  freezing  moon;  or,  nekeg  kisis,  wild  goose  moon. 
5.  sagipakawe  kisis,  opening  leaves  moon.  6.  otaemene  kisis,  ripe  strawberries 
moon.  7.  menine  kisis,  huckleberry  moon.  8.  apittanenepene  kisis,  midsummer 
moon.  9.  amanoso  kisis,  rutting  moon.  10.  penakwe  kisis,  falling  leaves  moon. 
11.  oshekepippon  kisis,  the  approach  of  winter  moon;  or,  takwahke  kisis,  the 
hardening  of  the  earth  moon.  12.  pippon  kisis,  winter. 


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Ojibwa  (Beltrami).  1.  kitci-manito  uisis,  moon  of  the  great  spirit.  2. 
wamebinni-quisls,  moon  of  the  coming  of  eagles.  3.  onabannl-quisis,  moon  of 
the  hardened  snow.  4.  pokaodaquimi-quisis,  moon  of  the  snow-shoes.  5. 
wabigon-quisis,  moon  of  the  flowers.  6.  hodheimin-quisis,  moon  of  the  straw- 
berries. 7.  mikin-quisis,  moon  of  the  blue  fruits.  8.  wathebaqui-quisis,  moon 
of  the  yellow  leaves.  9.  inaqui-quisis,  moon  o fthe  falling  leaves.  10.  bima- 
hamo-quisis,  moon  of  the  migratory  game.  11.  kaskadinb-quisls,  moon  of  the 
snow.  12.  manito-quisis,  moon  of  the  little  spirit. 

Winnebago  (Schoolcraft).  1.  honch-wu-ho-no-nik,  little  bear’s  time.  2. 
honch-weehutta-raw,  big  bear’s  time.  3.  mak-hu-e-kee-ro-kok,  raccoon  run- 
ning time.  4.  ho-a-do-ku-noo-nuk,  fishrunning  time.  *5.  me-tow-zhe-raw,  drying 
of  the  earth.  6.  maw-ka-wee-raw,  digging  of  the  earth  or  planting  time. 
7.  maw-o-a-naw,  hoeing  corn  time.  8.  maw-hoch-ra-wee-daw,  corn  tasseling  time. 

9.  wu-toch-aw-he-raw,  corn  popping  or  harvest  time.  10.  ho-waw-zho-ze-raw, 
elk  whistling  time.  11.  cha-ka-wo-ka-raw,  deer  running  time.  12.  cha-ka-wak- 
cho-raw,  deer’s  horns  dripping  time. 

Winnebago  (Radin).  1.  First  bear  month.  2.  Last  bear  month.  3.  Raccoon 
breeding  time.  4.  Fish  month,  o.  Drying  of  earth  month.  6.  Digging  of  earth 
month.  7.  Cultivating  month.  8.  Tasseling  month.  9.  Elk  whistling  month. 

10.  Pawing  of  earth  month.  11.  Deer  breeding  month.  12.  Deer  shedding 
horns  month. 

Radin  does  not  believe  “much  stress  is  laid  upon  which  of  the  months  begins 
the  year.  ’ ’ 

Sauk  and  Fox  (Blair).  1.  chuckee  muqua  keeshis,  little  bear  month.  2. 
tuc-wun-nee  keeshis,  cold  month.  3.  pa-puk-qua  keeshis,  sap  month.  4.  a-paw- 
in-eek-kee  keeshis,  fish  month.  5.  uc-kee-kay  keeshis,  planting  month.  6. 
pa-la-nee  keeshis,  first  summer  or  flowering  month.  7.  na-pen-nee  keeshis,  mid- 
summer month.  8.  mish-a-way  keeshis,  elk  month.  *9.  tuc-wot-thu  keeshis, 
first  frosty  month.  10.  amulo  keeshis,  rutting  month.  11  puccume  keeshis, 
freezing  month.  12.  kiche  muqua  keeshis,  big  bear  month. 

Iroquois  (Cuoq).  1.  tsiotorkowa,  great  cold.  2.  enniska,  small  moon. 
3.  enniskowa,  great  moon.  4.  oneratokha,  small  leaves.  5.  oneratakowa,  large 
loaves.  6.  oiarika,  fruit  a little  ripe.  7.  oiarikowa,  fruit  well  ripe.  8.  seskcha. 

9.  seskehow.  10.  kentenha,  little  hard  times.  11.  kentenkowa,  great  hard 
times.  *12.  tsiotorha,  little  cold. 

Iroquois  (Barbeau,  from  Hewitt).  1.  dis-go'-na,  great  or  longer  days.  2. 
ka-na'q-to-lia,  somewhat  immersing  the  leaves.  3.  ka-nag-to-go'-na,  thoroughly 
immersing  the  leaves.  4.  heq-sat-a,  slight  freezing.  5.  hya-i-ha,  fruits  begin 
to  ripen.  6.  sis-ke-ha,  (1).  7.  sis-ke-go'na,  (?).  8.  ke“-ten’a,  (?).  9.  ken-te,‘’- 

go'-na,  (?).  10.  tco-tho-we-ha,  again  it  is  somewhat  cold.  11.  tco-tho-we-go'-na, 

again  it  is  greatly  cold.  12.  dis-a',  short  days. 

Iroquois  (Barbeau,  from  Gibson).  1.  disgii'na  (the  principal  month,  mid- 
winter begins  the  first  new  moon  after).  2.  gana' ’da'ha ’,  leaves  falling  to  the 
water.  3.  gana'du'guna,  great  falling,  leaves  under  the  water  now.  4.  he-sutu, 
bushes,  shrubs  and  plants  begin  to  grow  again.  5.  u'niaiguna'  ; or,  hiaha’, 
berries  begin  to  ripen.  6.  sisge’ha’,  plants  growing.  7.  sisgegu’na’,  almost 
everything  growing  up  and  bearing  something.  8.  gande"'a’,  food  beginning  to 
form.  9.  gandcn'a’gu'na,  great  season  when  everything  is  bearing  food. 

10.  djutuweha’,  beginning  of  cold  weather.  11.  djutuwcguwa’,  beginning  of 
very  cold  weather.  12.  disa’. 

Iroquois  (Barbeau,  from  Shea).  1.  dziotaragona,  moon  of  great  cold.  2. 
tichha,  windy  month  (f).  3.  tichkona,  very  windy  (?)  month.  4.  ganerattoha. 


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167 


5.  ganerattogona.  6.  iehakka.  7.  liiarigona.  8.  cliereskeha.  9.  chereske'gona. 
10.  kentenha.  11.  kentengona.  12.  dziotore'ha,  cold  month. 

Iroquois  (Barbeau,  from  Stacey).  1.  djordor’kowa.  2.  aniska.  3.  anisgowa. 
4.  onera’do'ga.  5.  onera’dogowa.  6.  ohiariha.  7.  . 8.  sesge'a’. 

9.  scsgego'wa’.  10.  gantan'ha.  11.  ganta"go'wa.  12.  djodora. 

Iroquois  (Barbeau,  from  Skvc).  1.  disgu'na.  2.  gana’du’ha’.  3.  ganadu’gfma’. 
4.  he-sutu.  5.  hiaiiguna’.  6.  slge'ha’.  7.  sis'geguna’.  8.  gande"'a\  9.  gande"agu'na’. 

10.  djutuweha’.  11.  djutiiwegiina.  12.  disu’. 

Onondaga,  Iroquois  (Shea).  1.  dziotaragona.  2.  tichha.  3.  tichkona.  4. 
ganerattoha.  5.  ganerattogona.  6.  iehakka.  7.  huarigOna.  8.  chereske'ha. 

9.  chereske'gona.  10.  kentenha.  11.  kentengona.  12.  dziotore'ha. 

Onondaga,  Iroquois  (Beauchamp).  *1.  tis-go-nah,  longer  day.  2.  ka-na-to-ha, 

winter  leaves  fall.  3.  ka-na-to-go-nah,  winter  leaves  fall  and  fill  large  holes. 

4.  e-sut-ah,  warm  and  good  days,  but  not  planting  time.  5.  o-yea-ie-go-nah, 

strawberries  ripe  and  leaves  in  full  size.  6.  ses-ka-hah,  sun  goes  for  long 

days.  7.  ses-ka-go-nah,  sun  gods  for  longer  days.  8.  ken-ten-ah,  the  deer  sheds 
its  hair.  9.  ken-ten-go-nah,  the  deer  in  its  natural  fur.  *10.  chut-ho-wa-ah, 
little  cold.  11.  chut-ho-wa-go-nah,  large  cold.  12.  tis-ah,  little  long  day. 

The  religious  year,  according  to  Beauchamp,  begins  with  the  White  Dog 
Feast  in  January  or  February;  in  other  ways  the  year  begins  in  the  fall  when 
the  Indian  goes  out  to  hunt.  Beauchamp  follows  the  latter  order.  I have  indi- 
cated both. 

Delaware  (Heckewelder).  1.  Mouse  or  squirrel  month.  2.  Frog  month. 

*3.  Shad  month;  later,  running  of  sap  or  making  sugar.  4.  Spring  month. 

5.  Planting  month.  6.  Fawn  month;  or  month  the  deer  bring  forth  their  young; 

or,  month  in  which  the  hair  on  the  deer  changes  to  a reddish  color.  7.  Summer 
month.  8.  Month  of  roasting  ears.  9.  Autumn  month.  10.  Gathering  or  harvest 
month.  11. . 12.  Hunting  month. 

Delaware  (Beauchamp).  1.  Squirrel  month.  2.  Month  of  frogs.  *3.  Shad 
month.  4.  Planting  month.  5.  Time  for  hoeing  corn.  6.  Month  in  which  the 
deer  become  red.  7.  Time  for  hilling  corn.  8.  Named  from  the  condition  of 
the  corn  which  is  in  the  milk.  9.  First  month  of  autumn.  10.  Harvest  month. 

11.  Month  for  hunting.  12.  Time  when  bucks  cast  their  horns. 

Delaware  (Zeisberger).  1.  anixi  gischuch,  squirrel  month.  2.  tsqualli 
gischuch,  frog  month.  3.  m’choamowi  gischuch,  shad  month.  4.  quitauweuhewi 
gischuch,  spring  month.  5.  tauwinipen  gischuch,  beginning  of  summer. 

6.  kitschinipen  gischuch,  summer  month.  7.  yugatamoewi  gischuch,  month  in 
which  Indian  corn  is  gathered.  (According  to  Loskeil.)  8.  sakauweuhewi 
gischuch,  deer  month.  9.  kitschitachquoak,  autumn  month.  10.  pooxit,  month 
of  vermin.  11.  wini  gischuch,  snow  month.  12.  m’cliakhoeque,  cold  month,  the 
month  when  the  cold  makes  the  trees  crack. 

Zeisberger  thinks  the  Lenni  Lenape  have  bo  real  beginning  for  the  year, 
except  as  the  result  of  European  influence. 

Tribe  uncertain  (Zeisberger).  1.  ground  squirrels  come  out  of  their  holes. 
2.  squalle  gischuch,  month  of  frogs.  *3.  ehoame  gischuch,  shad  month. 

4.  hackihewi  gischuch,  planting  month.  5.  The  name  signifies  the  month  in 
w'hich  the  hoe  is  used  for  the  Indian  corn.  6.  The  name  signifies  the  month  in 
which  the  deer  become  red.  7.  Time  for  raising  the  earth  around  the  corn. 
8.  winu  gischuch,  the  corn  in  the  milk — ready  to  eat.  9.  First  autumn  month. 

10.  Harvest  month.  11.  Hunting  month.  12.  Time  when  the  bucks  cast  their 
horns. 


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Delaware  (Zeiszerger).  1.  anixi  gischuch,  mouse  month.  2.  schqualle 

gischuch,  frog  month.  3.  chwame  gischuch,  shad  month.  4.  . 5. 

ehackihewi  gischuch.  6.  . 7.  nipeni,  summer  month.  8.  winaminge 

gischuch,  month  of  roasting  corn.  9.  . 10. . 11.  . 

12.  . 

Southeastern  Woodland 

Choctaw  (Bushnell).  1.  . 2.  hashe  kapo'sha,  moon  of  the  snow. 

3.  hash'mahale,  moon  of  the  wind.  4.  tans  h-ashe,  corn  planting  moon. 

5.  — . 6. . 7.  hash'  luwak,  moon  of  fire.  8. . 9. . 

10.  . 11. . *12.  una'fa  hashe. 

Choctaw  (Byington).  1.  h^sh  hoponi  (Januarv-February).  2.  chafiskono, 
from  hohchafo  iskitini,  little  famine  (February-March).  *3.  chafo  chito, 
from  hohchafo  chito,  big  famine  (March- April).  4.  h?sh  koi"chush  (April- 
May).  5.  h^sh  koichito  (May-June).  6.  h^sh  mali  (June-July).  7.  h?sh 
watullak,  or  (taken  from  an  earlier  list)  hflsh  watonlak  (July- August). 
8.  tek  inhashi  (August-September).  9.  h$sh  bihi  (September-October).  10. 
hash  bissa  (October-November).  11.  h$sh  k#f  (November-December).  12. 
hflsh  takkon  (December-January). 

“ Muskogee ” (Loughridge).  1.  rv'fo-cu'se,  winter’s  younger  brother.  2. 
ho'tvle-hv'se,  wind  month.  3.  tasa'-hcuce,  little  spring  month.  4.  tasa'hce-ra'kko, 
big  spring  month.  5.  ke-hv'se,  mulberry  month.  6.  kv'co-hv'se,  blackberry 
month.  7.  hi'yuce,  little  harvest  or  summer  month.  8.  hi'yo-ra'kko,  big  harvest 
or  summer  month.  9.  otowo'skuce,  little  chestnut  month.  10.  oto-wo'skv-ra'lcko, 
big  chestnut  month.  11.  eho'le,  frost  month.  12.  rv'fo-ra'kko,  big  winter. 

Seminole  (McCauley).  1.  (jla-futs-u-tsi,  little  winter.  2.  ho-ta-li-ha-si,  wind 
moon.  3.  ho-ta-li-ha-si-<jlak-o,  big  wind  moon.  4.  ki-ha-su-tsi,  little  mulberry 
moon.  5.  ki-ha-si-$lak-o,  big  mulberry  moon.  6.  ka-tco-ha-si.  7.  hai-yu-tsi. 
8.  hai-yu-tsi-glak-o.  9.  o-ta-wus-ku-tsi.  10.  o-ta-wus-ka-^lak-o.  11.  i-ho-li.  12. 
<jla-fo-§lak-o,  big  winter. 

Yuchi  (Speck).  1.  s'alatcpl',  ground  frozen  moon.  2.  ho'da  dzo',  wind  moon. 
3.  wad'a  sine”',  little  summer.  4.  wad'a'a',  big  summer.  5.  dec*o'  nendzo,  mul- 
berry ripening  moon.  6.  cpa'eo  nendzo',  blackberry  ripening  moon.  *7.  wag'a'kya, 
middle  of  summer.  8.  tse'ne  aga',  dog  day.  9.  tsoga'  li'ne-tse”e,  hay  cutting 

moon.  10.  tsot,o'honstane',  corn  ripening  moon.  11. 12.  ho'ctA“d'a'kya, 

middle  of  winter. 

Natchez  (Swanton).  1.  Cold  meal.  2.  Chestnuts.  *3.  Deer.  4.  Strawberries. 
5.  Little  corn.  6.  Watermelons.  7.  Peaches.  8.  Mulberries.  9.  Maize  or  great 
corn.  10.  Turkeys.  11.  Bison.  12.  Bears. 


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169 


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(For  this  unpublished  material  I am  indebted  to  various  ethnologists,  as 
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U.  S.  Interpreter  at  St.  Peters;  129,  Na-u-ni,  or  Comanche  of 
Texas,  by  Robert  S.  Neighbors,  Special  Indian  Agent  for  Texas; 
III,  239,  Winnebago,  by  J.  E.  Fletcher;  v,  183—4,  Blackfoot;  171 
and  569,  Kenistenos. 

Shea,  J.  G. 

1860.  A French -Onondaga  Dictionary;  from  a manuscript  of  the  seventeenth 
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Simpson,  R.  N. 

1875.  The  Western  Eskimo,  Royal  Geog.  Soc.,  Arctic  Geography  and  Eth- 
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Skinner,  Alanson 

1911.  Notes  on  the  Eastern  Cree  and  Northern  Saulteaux,  Antlir.  Papers 
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Speck,  Frank 

1909.  Ethnology  of  the  Yuchi  Indians,  Anthr.  Publ.,  Mus.  Univ.  Pa.,  I, 

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Sproat,  G.  M. 

1868.  Scenes  and  Studies  of  Savage  Life  (London),  p.  123. 

Stevenson,  Matilda  C. 

1904.  The  Zuni  Indians,  their  Mythology,  Esoteric  Fraternities  anil  Cere- 
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Swan,  J.  G. 

1868.  The  Indians  of  Cape  Flattery,  at  the  Entrance  to  the  Strait  of  Fuca, 
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1860.  Indianology  of  California,  in  California  Farmer  (San  Francisco). 
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1906a.  The  Lillooet  Indians,  ibid.,  IV,  223,  224. 

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Thompson,  Gilbert 

1889.  Indian  Time  Indicators,  Am.  Anthr.,  ii,  118. 

Thorburn,  John 

1898.  Counting  and  Time-reckoning,  Trans.  Can.  Inst.,  v,  314. 

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1906.  The  Mandans,  Papers  Peabody  Mus.  Harv.  Univ.,  ill,  127. 

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Zeisberger,  David 

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1910.  History  of  the  North  American  Indians,  Ohio  Arch.  Hist.  Quarterly, 
xix.  145. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PU  BLICATION  S - (CONTIN  U EO) 

Vol.  7.  1.  The  Emeryville  Shellmov.nd,  by  Max  Uhle.  Pp.  1-106,  plates  1-12,  with  38 

text  figures.  June,  1907  1.25 

2.  Recent  Investigations  bearing  upon  the  Question  of  the  Occurrence  of 

Neocene  Man  in  the  Auriferous  Gravels  of  California,  by  William  J. 
Sinclair.  Pp.  107-130,  plates  13-14.  February,  1908  .35 

3.  Pomo  Indian  Basketry,  by  S.  A.  Barrett.  Pp.  133-306,  plates  15-30,  231 

text  figures.  December,  1908  ........ 1.75 

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356,  plates  32-34.  December,  1909  50 

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April,  1910 , 75 

Index,  pp.  427-443. 

Vol.  8.  1.  A Mission  Eecord  of  the  California  Indians,  from  a Manuscript  in  the 

Bancroft  Library,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  1-27.  May,  1908 25 

2.  The  Ethnography  of  the  Cahuilla  Indians,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  29-68, 

plates  1-15.  July,  1908  ... 75 

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by  Constance  Goddard  Dubois.  Pp.  69-186,  plates  16-19.  June,  1908  1.25 

4.  The  Culture  of  the  Luiseno  Indians,  by  Philip  Stedman  Sparkman.  Pp.  187- 

234,  plate  20.  August,  1908  .50 

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Pp.  235-269.  September,  1909  35 

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271-358,  plates  21-28.  March,  1910  .80 

Index,  pp.  359-369. 

Vol.  9.  1.  Yana  Texts,  by  Edward  Sapir,  together  with  Yana  Myths  collected  by 

Roland  B.  Dixon.  Pp.  1-235.  February,  1910  2.50 

2.  The  Chumash  and  Costanoan  Languages,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  237-271. 

November,  1910  35 

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Kroeber.  Pp.  273-435,  and  map.  April,  1911  1.50 

Index,  pp.  437-439. 

Vol.  10.  1.  Phonetic  Constituents  of  the  Native  Languages  of  California,  by  A.  L. 

Kroeber.  Pp.  1-12.  May,  1911  10 

2.  The  Phonetic  Elements  of  the  Northern  Paiute  Language,  by  T.  T.  Water- 

man. Pp.  13-44,  plates  1-5.  November,  1911  .45 

3.  Phonetic  Elements  of  the  Mohave  Language,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  45-96, 

plates  6-20.  November,  1911  65 

4.  The  Ethnology  of  the  Salinan  Indians,  by  J.  Alden  Mason.  Pp.  97-240, 

plates  21-37.  December,  1912  1.75 

5.  Papago  Verb  Stems,  by  Juan  Dolores.  Pp.  241-263.  August,  1913  25 

6.  Notes  on  the  Chilula  Indians  of  Northwestern  California,  by  Pliny  Earle 

Goddard.  Pp.  265-288,  plates  38-41.  April,  1914  .30 

7.  Chilula  Texts,  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  289-379.  November,  1914 1.00 

Index,  pp.  381-385. 

Vol.  11.  1.  Elements  of  the  Kato  Language,  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  1-176,  plates 

1-45.  October,  1912  2.00 

2.  Phonetic  Elements  of  the  Diegueno  Language,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber  and  J.  P. 

Harrington.  Pp.  177-188.  April,  1914  10 

3.  Sarsi  Texts,  by  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  189-277.  February,  1915 ....  1.00 

4.  Serian,  Tequistlatecan,  and  Hokan,  by  A.  L.  Kroeber.  Pp.  279-290.  Febru- 

ary, 1915  10 

5.  Dichotomous  Social  Organization  in  South  Central  California,  by  Edward 

Winslow  Gifford.  Pp.  291-296.  February,  1916  05 

6.  The  Delineation  of  the  Day-Signs  in  the  Aztec  Manuscripts,  by  T.  T.  Water- 

man. Pp.  297-398.  March,  1916  1.00 

7.  The  Mutsun  Dialect  of  Costanoan  Based  on  the  Vocabulary  of  De  la  Cuesta, 

by  J.  Alden  Mason.  Pp.  399-472.  March,  1916  70 

Index,  pp.  473-479. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS  - (CONTINU  ED) 

Vol.  12.  1.  Composition  of  California  Shellmonnds,  by  Edward  Winslow  Gifford.  Pp. 

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Vol.  13.  1.  The  Position  of  Yana  in  the  Hokan  Stock,  by  E.  Sapir.  Pp.  1-34.  July, 

1917  35 

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Kroeber.  Pp.  47-118,  map  1,  1 figure  in  text.  September,  1919 .75 

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